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THE FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE OF 
THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS, ALASKA, IN 1914 









By 


Wilfred H 


.Osgood, 


Edward A. 


Preble 


and George H. P 


arker 


From 


BULLETIN 


OF 


THE 


BUREAU OE FISHERIES, 


Volume XXXIV,, 


1914 


Document 


No. 


820 












; Issued June ig, 


1915 




WASHINGTON ::::.:: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 



1915 



THE FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE OF 
THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS, ALASKA, IN 1914 

By Wilfred H. Osgood, Edward A. Preble, and George H. Parker 



From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXXIV, 1914 
Document No. 820 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Issued June 19, 1915 











WASHINGTON :::::: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ::::::::: 1915 






# 



m 



ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM 

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT PRrNTTNG OFFICE 

■WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 

50 CENTS PER COPY 



o; ofq: 

AUG 5 



A 



THE FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE OF THE PRIBILOF 
ISLANDS, ALASKA, IN 1914 

By Wilfred H. Osgood, Edward A. Preble, and George H. Parker 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Letters op Transmittal n 

Letter op Submittal 12 

Introduction 13 

Personnel and instructions 13 

Investigations by Canada and Japan 15 

Itinerary 15 

Impartial nature of the investigation 16 

Acknowledgments 16 

The Pribilop Islands 17 

General description 17 

Vegetation 18 

Climate 18 

Character and Habits of the Fur Seal in Brief 18 

General characteristics 18 

Range 18 

Breeding habits 19 

Habits of bachelors 20 

Age of seals 20 

Sealing History in Brief 21 

Russian management 21 

American occupation and the leasing system 21 

The growth of pelagic sealing 22 

The Paris Tribunal and the modus vivendi 22 

Special investigations 23 

Sealing under Government management 24 

The law of 1910 24 

The treaty suspending pelagic sealing 24 

The law of 1912 24 

Revenue from fur seals 25 

The Census of the Herd in 1914 25 

The nature of the census 25 

The count of harems 25 

Preliminary counts 26 

Height of season counts 26 

Harem charts 27 

The count of idle and young bulls 28 

The count of half bulls 28 

The count of bachelors 28 

The count of pups 29 

Importance of the count 29 

The method of counting pups 30 

The count of dead pups 31 

Participants in the count, and results 31 

The estimates 32 

Yearlings 33 

Two-year-olds 33 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

The Census of the Herd in 19 14 — Continued. 

The estimates — Continued. Page. 

Three-year-old males. 34 

Four-year-old males 36 

Five-year-old males 36 

Summary of estimates of nonbreeding seals 36 

The complete census of 1914 38 

Results of the Census 38 

Independent results 38 

Comparative results 39 

Comparison of harems and idle bulls 39 

Comparison of nonbreeding seals 41 

Comparison of cows and pups 41 

The census in the future ■ 45 

The Breeding or Harem Bulls 45 

Strength and vigor 45 

Senile bulls 46 

Adolescent harem bulls 47 

Fighting of old bulls 47 

Significance of the increase of harem bulls 49 

The ideal proportion of harem bulls 49 

Idle and Young Bulls 50 

Age and character 50 

Irregular distribution 52 

Idle bulls as a desirable breeding element 52 

Idle bulls as a menace to the herd 53 

The ideal proportion of idle bulls 54 

The utilization of surplus bulls 55 

The Average Harem 56 

Value of the average harem 56 

Variation of average harems -. 56 

The average harem as a criterion of the capacity of bulls 57 

Distinctions Between the Classes of Seals 58 

General distinctions 59 

Special methods applied in 1914 59 

The yearlings 60 

Definition 60 

Limited knowledge of yearlings 60 

Records of yearlings 61 

Movements of yearlings 64 

The 2-year-olds 65 

Two-year-old males 65 

Two-year-old females 66 

The 3-year-old bachelors 67 

The 4-year-old bachelors 69 

Summary of measurements 70 

Mortality of Seals 70 

Death of pups on land 70 

Death of young seals at sea 72 

Death of adult seals . . . 73 

The Effect of Pelagic Sealing 74 

Losses due to pelagic sealing 74 

Information to be gained from the cessation of pelagic sealing 74 

Effect of pelagic sealing still evident 75 

Pelagic sealing indirect cause of close land killing 76 



CONTENTS. 5 

Page. 

The Effect of Land Sealing 76 

The Management of the Herd 77 

The general policy 77 

The nature and extent of the property 78 

Management based on principles employed with domestic animals 78 

Requirements of a reserving system 79 

Confinement of killing and reserving to one class 79 

The method of marking reserves 80 

The proportion of males to be reserved ■ 80 

Methods of Driving, Killing, and Curing Skins 85 

Need for shorter drives 85 

Killing 86 

Females and old seals in drives 86 

The sealing season 88 

Skinning 89 

Curing of skins 89 

Need of competent supervision 90 

Measurements versus weights 90 

Tagging of skins 92 

Practical Improvements Needed 92 

Present unimproved condition of plant 92 

Reforms contemplated by lessees 93 

Better methods of transportation needed 93 

Roads and trails 93 

Supply ship 94 

Cold-storage plants 95 

Rookery improvements 95 

Marked rocks ,.. 95 

Observation stations 95 

Improvement of ground 96 

The Effect of Existing Laws 96 

The law effective for longer than intended 97 

As a beneficial measure the law has served its purpose 97 

Evils of leasing system not possible under Government management 98 

Flexible regulations desirable 98 

Reserves unduly large 99 

Matters for special discretionary power 100 

Emergency action 100 

Annual sale of skins 101 

Specimens for scientific purposes 101 

Effect of restricted sealing on the fox herd 101 

The treaty 102 

Early solution of practical problems important 103 

Gradual development of efficiency necessary 103 

Conclusions '. 104 

The Foxes 105 

General considerations 105 

Former abundance 106 

Decline from lack of food 106 

Diseases 108 

Food ' 108 

Seal meat 108 

Birds and eggs 108 

Miscellaneous food 109 



6 CONTENTS. 

The Foxes — Continued. 

Food — Continued. Page . 

Needs of foxes according to season no 

History of special feeding no 

Breeding habits in 

Methods of capturing '. 112 

Recommendations 1 13 

Feeding and method of capturing 1 13 

Reserves for breeding 1 14 

Elimination of white foxes 114 

Care of skins 115 

Sale for breeding 115 

Experiments in domesticating foxes 116 

The Reindeer 117 

Introduction and growth of herd 117 

Limited capacity of the islands 1 18 

Indifference of natives regarding reindeer 1 18 

Use and value of the herd 119 

The Sea Lions 119 

Early abundance and uses 119 

Breeding habits 120 

Numbers killed in former years 120 

Measures for preservation 121 

The Birds 121 

Murres 122 

Gulls 122 

Auklets 123 

Ducks and geese 123 

Shore birds 123 

Cormorants 124 

Measures for protection 124 

Fishing 125 

Introduction op New Animals 126 

Domestic animals 127 

Horses and mules 127 

Cattle 127 

Sheep 127 

Swine 128 

Cats 128 

Poultry 128 

Wild animals 128 

Hares and rabbits 128 

Ground squirrels 129 

Muskrats 129 

Sea otter ■ 130 

Mink and otter 131 

Lemmings and other small mammals 131 

Ptarmigan 131 

The Natives 132 

Origin and early history 132 

Relation to lessees 132 

Conditions under Government management 134 

Present system of support 134 

Population 139 

Practical ability of natives 139 



CONTENTS. 7 

The Natives — Continued. p age . 

Knowledge of seals overestimated 140 

Proposed removal of natives impractical 140 

Present appropriation inadequate 141 

Food requirements < 142 

Housing 142 

Hygiene and sanitation 143 

Morals 145 

Religion 145 

Education 145 

Conclusions 147 

Summary 147 

Existing conditions 147 

Conclusions 148 

Bibliography 149 

Description of Maps 168 



TABLES AND NUMERICAL RECORDS. 

Page. 

Early count of harems, St. George Island 26 

Harems and idle bulls at height of season, 1914 27 

Bachelors on land at one time 29 

Count of pups, Pribilof Islands, 1914 32 

Comparison of actual counts of pups with estimates based on an average harem 34 

Estimate of nonbreeding seals, 1914 37 

Complete census of fur seals, 1914 38 

General comparison of recent censuses 39 

Comparison of harems and idle bulls, 1912-1914 41 

Demonstration of probable abnormal mortality of old cows, 1913-1914 43 

Number of pups and percentages of decrease or increase in 1913 and in 1914 compared with the 

year before 44 

Percentage of idle bulls on different rookeries, 1914 52 

Mortality in relation to idle bulls 54 

Prices received for skins of large seals 55 

Comparison of average harems, 1912-1914 57 

Branded yearlings seen on St. Paul Island, 1913 62 

Branded yearlings seen on St. George Island, 1913 63 

Measurements and weights of male yearlings, St. George Island 63 

Measurements and weights of two-year-old males 66 

Measurements and weights of two-year-old females 67 

Measurements of three-year-old males, with weights of skins, St. Paul Island, July 1, 1914 69 

Measurements of four-year-old males, with weights of skins, 1914 69 

Condensed measurements of young males 70 

Mortality of pups, summer of 1914 71 

Estimated minimum number of females, 1914-1926 81 

Estimated maximum number of females, 1914-1926 81 

Estimated mean number of bearing and virgin cows, 1914-1926 81 

Estimated minimum number of males, 1914-1926, under operation of law of 1912 82 

Harem and idle bulls and annual increments required under various estimates at ratio of one 

bull to thirty-five cows 82 

Comparison of results of present law, and of a reserving system based on an estimated mean rate 

of increase of cows 82 

Bulls provided by law in excess of requirements of maximum, minimum, and mean estimates of 

cows 83 

Extracts from St. Paul log regarding cows in drives 87 

Number of foxes taken on Pribilof Islands, 1890-1913 107 

Sea lions killed on St. Paul Island, 1870-1890 120 

Number and size of households on Pribilof Islands, 1914 143 



Plate I. 
II. 

III. 
IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



PLATES. 

J- 

Facing page. 

Old bull in prime condition awaiting arrival of cows, Kitovi Rookery, June 22, 1914. . 18 

1. Cow and pup sleeping, Kitovi Rookery, August 23, 1914 22 

2. Cow nursing pup, Tolstoi Rookery, August 25, 1914 22 

Bachelors sleeping on Tolstoi sands, August 25, 1914 26 

1.. Fur-seal pups on Tolstoi Rookery, August 25, 1914 30 

2. Fur-seal pup on Gorbatch Rookery, August 19, 1914 30 

Old bull showing usual emaciation at close of breeding season 34 

Roving bachelors on front of Kitovi Rookery, August 23, 1914 38 

Tolstoi fiat after disorganization of the harems, August 23, 1914 50 

Old cows in front of Gorbatch Rookery, August 13, 1914 54 

Skulls of male seals showing changes due to growth and age: 1. Two-year-old. 2. 

Three-year-old. 3. Four-year-old 66 

Skulls of male seals showing changes due to growth and age: 1. Five-year-old. 2. 

Six-year-old. 3. Old male of about 12 years 68 

Cows and pups swimming, Vostochni Rookery, August 17, 1914 74 

Branded cow, probably 12 years of age, Kitovi Rookery, August 23, 1914 78 

Young seals hauled on Tolstoi Beach, St. Paul Island, August 25, 1914 80 

Driving and podding seals for a food killing, St. Paul Island, August 8, 1914 86 

Sea Lion Rookery at Northeast Point, St. Paul Island, June 28, 1914 120 

Murres or arries on Walrus Island, July 16, 1914 122 

Natives' dwelling houses with seal meat drying, St. Paul Island, July 9, 1914 142 

Native laborers moving hospital building, St. Paul Island, August 24, 1914 . 144 



*&* t2r* t£r* 



DESCRIPTION OF MAPS. 



ROOKERIES, SHOWING NUMBER AND LOCATION OF HAREMS AT HEIGHT OF SEASON, 1914. 

St. Paul Island. St. Paul Island — Continued. 



1. Kitovi 172 

2. Lukanin 172 

3. Gorbatch 172 

4. Ardiguen 172 

5. Reef 172 

6. Sivutch 172 

7. Lagoon 172 

8. Tolstoi 172 

9. Zapadni 172 

10. Little Zapadni 172 

11. Zapadni Reef 172 

12. Polovina 172 



13. Polovina Cliffs 172 

14. Little Polovina 172 

15. Morjovi 172 

16. Vostochni 172 

St. George Island. 

17. North 172 

18. Staraya Artel 172 

19. Zapadni 172 

20. Little East 172 

21. East Reef 172 

22. East Cliffs 172 



23. St. Paul Island 

24. St. George Island 



GENERAL MAPS. 

with Otter Island and Sea Lion Rock . . 



172 
172 



LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL. 

J- 

Department op Commerce, 

Office of the Secretary, 
Washington, February ij, 191 5. 

My Dear Senator Fletcher : I transmit herewith a report of Wilfred H. Osgood, 
Edward A. Preble, and George H. Parker, scientific assistants of the Bureau of Fisheries, 
on the fur seals and other life on the Pribilof Islands in 191 4, and request that you 
obtain the consent of the Senate to have the report printed as a congressional document. 

When the present Administration took charge it found in full force and vigor the 
existing law providing for a closed season for the seal herd belonging to the United 
States on the Pribilof Islands. This law was approved August 24, 191 2, effective imme- 
diately, and will expire by its own limitation August 24, 191 7. 

The Department has felt that it had two duties in this important matter. The 
first was to enforce the law in letter and in spirit, and this has been done. The second 
was to ascertain from unprejudiced and dispassionate sources the effects of the law 
and to inform Congress about them as fully as possible. This is now done. 

In view of the sharp controversy that has existed on the subject of the fur-seal 
herd it was deemed necessary that the persons selected by the Bureau of Fisheries as 
scientific assistants to study this problem should be persons who were free from all pre- 
vious connection with the subject, but who were qualified by training and experience to 
determine and present the facts. It was required also that they should be severally 
qualified to carry on as separate individuals the particular lines of scientific study 
necessary to a full understanding of the problem. 

Under these circumstances the president of the National Academy of Sciences, the 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Secretary of Agriculture were requested 
to make nominations of persons who might be temporarily employed for the purpose. 
The National Academy of Sciences nominated Prof. George H. Parker, of Harvard 
University, Cambridge, Mass. ; the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution nominated 
Mr. Wilfred H. Osgood, of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 111. ; and the 
Secretary of Agriculture nominated Mr. Edward A. Preble, of the Bureau of Biological 
Survey, Department of Agriculture. The three persons named were selected by the 
Department of Commerce and employed by the Bureau of Fisheries as temporary 
scientific assistants, and were instructed to proceed to the Pribilof Islands, there to 
ascertain the facts and to submit them to the Department for transmission to Congress. 
Full details are found in the attached report. 

As Great Britain, through the Dominion of Canada, and Japan are financially inter- 
ested in the American seal herd under the terms of the treaty abolishing pelagic sealing, 
these countries also of their own motion arranged to send representatives to the Pribilof 
Islands in 1914, and two experts from Canada and one from Japan visited the islands 
while our own inquiry was progressing. The facts concerning this matter appear in 
full in the report. 

a This report was originally printed as Senate Document No. 9S0, 63d Congress, 3d session. 



12 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 

The report is accompanied by three large traced maps of the Pribilof Islands, of 
which blue prints have been taken for the records of the Department, and by 21 smaller 
maps illustrating the report in detail. 

The purpose of the Department has been to provide Congress with an unbiased 
statement of the actual facts to assist it in the preparation of such further legislation, 
if any, as it may deem wise to enact. It is my earnest hope that this has been accom- 
plished. 

Yours, very truly, 

William C. Redfield, Secretary. 
Hon. Duncan U. Fletcher, 

Chairman Committee on Printing, 

U. S. Senate, Washington, D. C. 



Department of Commerce, 

Bureau of Fisheries, 
Washington, January 25, 1 9 75. 
Sir : There is transmitted herewith, for the information of the department, a report 
entitled "The Fur Seals and Other Life of the Pribilof Islands in 1914," by Wilfred H. 
Osgood, Edward A. Preble, and George H. Parker, special assistants whom the depart- 
ment engaged to visit the Pribilof Islands and investigate the conditions thereon during 
the sealing season of 191 4. The report is accompanied by a limited number of photo- 
graphs illustrating important phases of the subject and a series of maps showing the 
location and extent of the seal rookeries. 

In view of the comprehensive scope of the report, the purpose of the investigation 
on which it is based, and the large economic interests involved I beg leave to recommend 
that the report be submitted to Congress with a view to its publication and distribution. 
Respectfully, 

H. M. Smith, Commissioner. 
The Secretary of Commerce. 

t£r^ t6r* *£r* 

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 



Department of Commerce, 

Bureau of Fisheries, 
Washington, January 23, 1915. 
Sir: We have the honor to submit a report entitled "The Fur Seals and Other 
Life of the Pribilof Islands in 1914," being the result of investigations carried out in 
response to instructions received from the Secretary of Commerce under date of May 
26, 1914. 

Very respectfully, 

Wilfred H. Osgood. 

Edward A. Preble. 
George H. Parker. 
Dr. Hugh M. Smith, 

Commissioner of Fisheries. 



THE FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 

ALASKA, IN 1914. 

By WILFRED H. OSGOOD, EDWARD A. PREBLE, and GEORGE H. PARKER. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PERSONNEL AND INSTRUCTIONS. 

In the spring of 1914, at the instance of the Secretary of Commerce, steps were 
taken to send three investigators to the Pribilof Islands to examine and report on the 
condition of the fur-seal herd. To this end the president of the National Academy of 
Sciences, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Secretary of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture were requested to make nominations. The only restriction im- 
posed was that the nominees should have had no previous connection with the fur-seal 
question, in order that they might approach the subject uninfluenced by the controver- 
sies which have for some time beset the subject. The nominations were as follows: 
George H. Parker, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., by the National Academy 
of Sciences; Wilfred H. Osgood, of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 111., 
by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; and Edward A. Preble, of the Bureau 
of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, by the Secretary of Agriculture. All 
having accepted, a conference was held in Washington on April 20, and tentative plans 
were formulated. In due time the nominees were appointed as temporary special assist- 
ants of the Bureau of Fisheries, and detailed individual letters of instructions were 
issued to them. The nature of these instructions is indicated by the following letter 
which was addressed to G. H. Parker, and which is essentially like those sent to the 

others : 

Department of Commerce, 

Office of the Secretary, 

Washington, May 26, IQ14. 
Dear Sir: You have been engaged as a temporary special assistant of the Department of Com- 
merce, Bureau of Fisheries, beginning June 1, 1914, and you axe assigned to an investigation of the 
Alaskan fur seals and various questions connected therewith, in cooperation with Mr. Wilfred H. Osgood 
and Mr. Edward A. Preble, in accordance with the instructions which are contained herein or which 
may hereafter be issued. 

You will arrange to sail for the Pribilof Islands from Seattle on or about June 8, on the revenue 
cutter McCulloch, which is under orders from the Treasury Department to carry your party to the seal 
islands. Your return trip from the seal islands to a point where a regular passenger steamer is available 
will likewise be made on a revenue cutter which will be detailed for the purpose. 

The time of your sojourn on the islands is left to your discretion. It is hoped, however, that you 
will remain as long as it is possible to obtain information of value bearing on the special object of your 
visit. 

13 



14 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

You have been selected for this service because, not having previously been identified with or in 
any way concerned with fur seals or the fur-seal controversy, it is expected that your observations and 
conclusions will be uninfluenced by past contentions but will depend wholly on the existing conditions. 
It is desired that you confine yourself to the facts that may be established by your inquiries, and not 
become involved with profitless discussion or controversy over previous conditions. 

The main purpose of your investigation is to ascertain the actual state of the Alaskan seal herd in 
1914, and to make that condition known to the department, with recommendations touching all impor- 
tant administrative matters growing out of the international, economic, and biological relations of the 
seal herd. Incidentally, it will be necessary for you to consider (1) the welfare of the native inhabit- 
ants of the islands and the duty of the Government thereto as related to the conservation and utilization 
of the seal life; and (2) the foxes, reindeer, birds, and other animals of the islands, and their proper 
treatment with reference to the best interests of the Government and the natives. 

Without assuming to restrict your investigations in any way whatever, I will indicate the following 
subjects as among those requiring special attention: 

1. A census of each rookery and hauling ground, so that the numerical strength of each component 
of the herd may be known. Especially valuable will be the actual enumeration of the pups before they 
have taken to the water, because this affords the only accurate knowledge of the number of breeding 
females present. The census requires much time and care, and should be participated in jointly and 
be certified to by the members of your party and the available members of the staff on the islands. 

2. The adequacy of the various components of the herd with regard to the reestablishment of the 
herd, and especially the sufficiency of male life in view of the recent apparent marked increase in the 
number of mature females as a result of the suspension of pelagic sealing. 

3. The strength of the surplus male life in relation to the close-time provisions of existing law and 
to treaty obligations. 

4. The quota of seals of specified ages that should be taken for the food and other purposes of the 
natives, in view of the provisions of law and of the condition of the herd. As soon as practicable after 
your arrival on the islands and after full consideration of the needs of the natives, the department 
desires a telegraphic recommendation to cover the food killings during the height of the season and a 
supplementary recommendation prior to your departure from the islands. 

5. The general and special effects of the suspension of pelagic sealing on the size and condition of 
the herd. 

6. The propriety of the methods of driving, killing, and skinning now practiced; the presence of 
female seals in the drives; the probability of the killing of immature females regularly or accidentally 
through inability to distinguish them from the bachelors. 

7. Natural mortality among young and old seals on the islands, especially that due to disease. 

8. Evidences of injury to the herd from fighting and trampling among surplus bulls, resulting from 
the operation of existing law. 

It is desired that there be obtained a full photographic record of the rookeries, hauling grounds, etc., 
and that the historical series of rookery views be continued as far as possible. Furthermore, as a part of 
the general publicity plans of the department, there should be taken a typical set of motion-picture 
photographs illustrating the various phases of seal and native life on the islands. 

So far as your other duties will permit, I am particularly desirous that you should give attention to 
the native inhabitants and determine what changes, if any, should be made in the relations of the Gov- 
ernment to their social, educational, sanitary, business, and other interests. 

The regular employees of the bureau on the seal islands will be instructed to accord you every 
facility and assistance in your work, and you will have access to and full use of all the official records 
on the islands and in Washington. 

As soon as practicable after your return, and preferably before December 1, I desire to have a full 
report embodying the results of your investigations, and recommendations based thereon. 
Very truly, yours, 

(Signed) William C. Redfield, 

Secretary. 
Prof. George H. Parker, 

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 15 

INVESTIGATIONS BY CANADA AND JAPAN. 

Canada and Japan, being interested financially in the American seal herd by the 
terms of the treaty abolishing pelagic sealing, also arranged to send representatives 
to the Pribilof Islands in 1914. A few days before the date assigned the American 
investigators for leaving for the Pribilof Islands, the State Department received from 
the British and Japanese ambassadors the following communication, which was referred 
to the Department of Commerce : 

NOTE VERBALS. 

During the past 25 years naturalists of unquestioned ability and integrity have been at great pains 
to acquire a fuller knowledge of the life of the fur seals frequenting the North Pacific Ocean. They 
have devoted much attention to the subject and have made a close personal study thereof on the seal 
islands. Whilst these studies have resulted in a consensus of opinion on many aspects of seal life, it 
appears that there is still some divergence of view, for instance as to the best course to rehabilitate 
the herd. 

In view of the importance of the matter to Canada and Japan, as well as to the United States, a 
suggestion has been made that the present time calls for the appointment of a committee of experts for 
these three countries to visit the Pribilof Islands during the summer, and after a thorough investi- 
gation into the conditions there prevailing, to submit a joint report and recommendations, if they can 
agree on such, for the consideration of the United States Government. 

It is desired to know what view the United States Government take of this proposal, and as the 
experts should be on the islands by the month of July, it is hoped that the United States Government 
will be able to give the matter their early consideration. 

May 29, 1014. 

To this request the Department of Commerce replied through the Department of 
State, expressing the belief that, on account of the late date, it would be impracticable 
to secure the necessary authority to enter into the formal joint investigation proposed, 
but that arrangements to send three expert assistants to the islands had already been 
made; that the department would welcome the representatives of Canada and Japan 
to the seal islands, and would afford them every possible facility for making their inves- 
tigations, and through its assistants would cooperate with them so far as possible. 
To this end, the agents on the islands and the special assistants were instructed to 
extend to the foreign visitors all possible courtesy and assistance. 

With this understanding, two experts from Canada and one from Japan visited 
the islands during the investigation. The representatives of Canada were Mr. James M. 
Macoun, naturalist of the Geological Survey of Canada, and Mr. B. W. Harmon, of the 
Dominion Department of Marine and Fisheries. The representative of Japan was 
Dr. T. Kitahara, biologist of the Imperial Japanese Fisheries Bureau. The American and 
foreign representatives worked cooperatively during the season, and though nothing 
of a deliberative nature was done jointly, the observation of fact and particularly the 
enumerations of seals, were matters of joint labor bv both Americans and foieigners. 

ITINERARY. 

Pursuant to instructions the three assistants assembled at Seattle, Wash., on the 
evening of June 8. Upon the arrival of the Canadian representatives, the combined 
party went on board the revenue cutter McCulloch, Capt. P. H. Uberroth commanding, 
and left for the Pribilof Islands on June 11. St. Paul Island was reached in the late 
afternoon of June 21, and the party was hospitably received by the officials in charge. 
84512°— S. Doc. 9S0, 63-3 2 



1 6 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The investigators remained on St. Paul Island until July 10 when they went to St. George 
Island on the Bureau of Fisheries steamship Albatross, Lieut. L. B. Porterfield com- 
manding. Here they remained until July 15, when they were taken back to St. Paul 
on the revenue cutter Tahoma, Capt. R. O. Crisp commanding. The next day, July 16, 
a trip to Walrus Island was made on the same vessel, and an opportunity for observing 
its extensive bird rookeries was afforded. 

On July 24, Dr. T. Kitahara, the Japanese representative, arrived on St. Paul Island 
on the United States revenue cutter Manning. 

A visit to Otter Island, formerly the site of an extensive hauling ground, was made 
on July 27 on the Tahoma. On August 3 the entire party — Americans, Canadians, and 
Japanese — having finished the count of the seal pups on St. Paul, went to St. George on 
the Tahoma to make a similar count there. This work was finished on the morning of 
August 5, and in the afternoon of that day all returned to St. Paul. 

On August 6, Mr. Parker, Mr. Kitahara, and Mr. Harmon left St. Paul for Seattle 
and their respective homes. Messrs. Macoun, Osgood, and Preble continued to make 
further observations until August 30, when, through the courtesy of Capt. W. F. Reynolds, 
in command of the Bering Sea fleet, they left on the revenue cutter Manning, Capt. 
F. G. Dodge commanding. The party arrived at Seward, Alaska, via Unalaska, on 
September 6, and left Seward on the steamship Alameda on September 9, arriving 
in Seattle on September 17. 

IMPARTIAL NATURE OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

In accordance with the desire of the Secretary of Commerce, the observations and 
inquiries of 1914 were conducted, so far as possible, without reference to previous 
opinions. The entire subject was approached without prejudice and with the desire 
only to ascertain the actual conditions. Nothing was taken for granted, and whenever 
it was found necessary to refer to previous conditions all points concerned were subjected 
to scrutiny and verification by actual observation. The same policy has been pursued 
in the preparation of the report, and though conclusions of others have been consulted 
freely they have not been accepted unless confirmed by observations in 1 914. In the 
treatment of special subjects, it has sometimes been necessary, for the sake of clearness, 
to repeat in part under one subject matter which may be found in full under another. 

The preparation of the report has been carried out mainly by Mr. Osgood and Mr. 
Preble. Owing to the press of other duties, Mr. Parker has been unable to give con- 
tinuous active assistance, but he has prepared certain sections, revised others, and 
critically examined the entire manuscript. Therefore the complete report, both as to 
detailed statement and general conclusions, is subscribed to by each of the co-authors. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In the course of the investigations material aid was received from many persons, 
to all of whom grateful acknowledgment is made. Special thanks are due the officers 
of the Revenue-Cutter Service, who were ready to aid at all times — the necessity of 
moving back and forth between the two main islands in order to make particular obser- 
vations at certain times rendered this ready cooperation invaluable. The agents and 
other employees of the Bureau of Fisheries on the islands and elsewhere, and the 
operators of the naval radio stations freely rendered service whenever required. Thanks 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIKE, PRIBILOE ISLANDS, 1914. 1 7 

for various courtesies are due also to the representatives of Canada and Japan, with 
whom the most cordial relations were maintained during daily association. 

Finally, it should be stated that certain of the suggestions made in the present 
report have been previously urged, some of them repeatedly. To former observers in 
the field and to many others who in the past have been more or less directly concerned 
with the activities on the islands, acknowledgment is made for such ideas and facts 
found in their printed reports as were confirmed by observations in 191 4. To give 
credit in each case is impracticable, but passing acknowledgment is made in various 
instances in the body of the report. 

THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. 
GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 

The Pribilof Islands are situated in Bering Sea in latitude 57 north and longitude 
170 west, and are of volcanic origin. The nearest land is Unalaska Island, 214 miles to 
the southward; the next nearest is St. Matthew Island, 220 miles to the north. The 
distance from the mainland of Alaska is a little over 300 miles. The group comprises 
five islands, St. Paul and St. George, lying about 40 miles apart, being the principal 
ones. The others are Otter Island, Walrus Island, and Sea Lion Rock, which lie close 
to the shores of St. Paul. 

St. Paul is about 13X miles long and 7^3 miles wide and has a shore line of about 45 
miles, composed of alternate stretches of sand and broken rock, in some cases backed by 
cliffs, the highest of which attain an elevation of nearly 400 feet. Several cinder cones 
are distributed over the island, the highest being Rush Hill, which is 665 feet above 
mean high tide. Much of the surface is very rough in character but extensive stretches 
of comparatively smooth ground, clothed with lichens and herbaceous plants, occupy 
many of the valleys and low plateaus. There are many fresh water ponds, the largest 
about 2 miles in length, but all are very shallow. 

St. George Island is about 12 miles long and 4K miles wide and has a coast line of 
about 30 miles. It is bordered mainly by abrupt cliffs, the highest of which rise nearly 
a thousand feet sharply from the water. There are several hills in the interior of the 
island, the highest of which is 946 feet above sea level. Various shallow ponds and 
many marshes, from which a few small streams descend to the sea, distinguish St. 
George from its larger companion, which is devoid of running water. 

Otter Island, 6 miles south of St. Paul, is only three-fourths of a mile in length; its 
shore is mostly precipitous, rising in one place to a height of 300 feet. The other islets, 
Walrus Island and Sea Lion Rock, also near St. Paul, are merely ledges of rock scarcely 
elevated above the wash of the sea. 

On the shores of the two larger islands the fur seals have most of their breeding 
rookeries and hauling grounds. The seals when breeding choose rocky beaches or 
bowlder-strewn ledges. The rookeries are usually separated from each other by 
stretches of sand or by abrupt cliffs, or in some cases by sections which have been 
abandoned. The breeding masses usually extend back from the water's edge but a 
short distance. 

Sea Lion Rock has a breeding rookery, and Otter Island formerly had a hauling 
ground, and once, in 1896, a single harem, but so far as known was not resorted to by 



1 8 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

seals during 1914. All the islands are the breeding resorts of myriads of sea birds. 
Their great numbers and the protection which they enjoy during the breeding season 
make them fearless and confiding, and they afford an exhibition of bird life which can 
scarcely be surpassed anywhere in the world. 

VEGETATION. 

The three larger islands are remarkable for the abundance and beauty of their 
floral display. The flowering plants include a great variety of subarctic species, which 
from early June until late August beautify the grassy slopes and plains. There are 
also many ferns and mosses and lichens, and a variety of grasses. No trees whatever 
grow on the islands, and the shrubs are represented only by a few creeping willows and 
dwarfed heath-like plants. The two smaller islands are devoid of vegetation with the 
exception of a few grasses and one or two insignificant herbs. 

CLIMATE. 

The range in temperature is very slight, the thermometer seldom rising above 50 
F. in summer, and in winter ranging usually between 20 and 25 and rarely falling 
lower than 12 . There is much precipitation, usually falling in the form of drizzly 
rains or light snows. Chilly fogs are of almost constant occurrence during summer 
and the winds are at other seasons sometimes very violent. In winter the pack ice 
from the Arctic frequently closes in about the shores. 

CHARACTER AND HABITS OF THE FUR SEAL IN BRIEF. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

The Alaska fur seal (Callorhinus alascanus), although similar in general appear- 
ance, has certain characters by which it is recognized by naturalists as distinct from 
the seals inhabiting the Russian and Japanese islands lying near the coast of Asia. 
It has a range peculiar to itself and is not associated at any season of the year with 
the other species of fur seals. With a few allied species, it is remarkable among large 
animals for its highly gregarious and polygamous nature and its habit of performing a 
long annual migration. It comes to land only in summer for the purpose of breeding 
and rearing its young; the remainder of the year is spent entirely at sea. It is an 
animal of exceedingly strong instincts and relatively small intelligence. The disparity 
in size between the sexes is very great, the adult male being nearly or quite five times 
as heavy as the female. Moreover, the male matures more slowly than the female, 
and thus it results that seals of different ages and sexes are different in appearance 
and to some extent in habit. The names by which the different ages and classes of 
seals have come to be known, therefore, are somewhat peculiar. The breeding males 
are bulls, the females are cows, while the young are pups. The males just approach- 
ing full maturity are called half -bulls, while the younger males are termed bachelors. 
The breeding ground is a rookery, and the place resorted to by the bachelors is a 

hauling ground. 

RANGE. 

Practically all the individuals of the herd during some part of the season from 
May until December make the Pribilof Islands their home. The winter and early 



Bum,. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate I. 




Old bull in prime condition awaiting arrival of cows, Kitovi Rookery, June 22, 19 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 19 

Spring months are spent entirely at sea. The migration route in general is southward 
to the passes of the Aleutian Islands, then eastward and southeastward along the coast 
of Alaska, British Columbia, and the United States to the latitude of southern Cali- 
fornia. The adult males remain farthest north, wintering south of the Aleutian Chain 
and in the Gulf of Alaska. The younger males go somewhat farther and the females 
the farthest of all. Returning from their winter resort, the seals reach the islands in 
general according to their age, the older animals first and the youngest last. The 
adult males begin to reach the Pribilof Islands about the 1st of May; the adult females 
and the older bachelors arrive there mainly in June; the 2 -year-olds mainly in July; 
and the yearlings in the latter part of August and early September. 

BREEDING HABITS. 

On reaching the islands the old bulls at once take their places on the rookery ground, 
in many cases, perhaps in most, choosing the same spot occupied in former years. They 
remain on the place selected throughout the entire breeding season without eating. Once 
the place is chosen they can scarcely be forced by any means to forsake it, and display 
the most extraordinary courage and persistence in maintaining their position against the 
assaults of their rivals or the efforts of man. During May and June the numbers on 
the rookery increase, each bull on arriving taking such place as he can obtain, some- 
times by dispossessing another, but as a rule by selecting an unoccupied spot. Thus 
the late comers settle about the ends or the rear of the breeding ground. Shortly after 
the 1st of June the females of 3 years and over begin to arrive. Each is pregnant, 
and is impelled by her condition to seek a place to give birth to her pup. The females 
on arrival at once land and join a bull, and within a few days, sometimes a few hours, 
they give birth. Each day other cows arrive, and the harems grow rapidly. The 
arriving cows show a tendency to join the larger groups, and consequently there is an 
uneven growth, some bulls securing large harems early in the season, while others near by, 
apparently equally strong and vigorous, may still have no cows. Early in the season, 
before the arrival of the cows, there is some display of rivalry among the bulls, and 
late arrivals attempting to gain a place near the center of the rookery are frequently 
subject to the joint attack of several bulls already in place. In general, however, the 
stationed bulls spend much of this time in sleeping, and incoming ones gradually fill 
in the unoccupied territory. As the height of the season approaches and cows come 
in heat in large numbers, the bulls become continuously alert and active. Those at 
the rear that have not obtained cows attempt to abduct some from the large harems, 
and some fighting ensues. When bulls are in abundance, a certain number are unable 
to secure harems and are known as idle bulls, though the observer finds them far from 
idle. In 1914 there were comparatively few of this class of bulls. The number of cows 
to a harem varies greatly, frequently being more than 50 and occasionally exceeding 
100, while in many cases it is very small — from 2 or 3 to a dozen. The large harems 
are clearly due more to advantage of position than to fighting prowess of the bulls 
in charge of them. 

A few pups are born as early as June 10, but the majority between June 20 and 
July 20. After the latter date the births decrease, but many occur during the last 10 
days of July and a few during the first week in August. An occasional birth occurs 
as late as August 10 or 15, and one on August 27 is recorded. Each female bears one 



20 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

pup and one only, and of the total number born approximately half are males and half 
females. The weight of the pup at birth is about 1 2 pounds. Within a few days after 
giving birth the female is impregnated; it therefore follows that the period of gestation 
is a few days short of one year. In the interval she nurses her pup, but otherwise shows 
comparatively little parental solicitude. After impregnation the mother seal, being 
free to go and come, takes the first of a series of journeys to sea for the purpose of feeding, 
going from 50 to 100 miles or more, and, after gorging on fish, remains in the water 
until digestion has taken place. While their mothers are at sea the pups form small 
"pods" by themselves outside the harems. On returning, the cow finds her pup among 
the thousands which now throng the rookeries, and stays with it a short time, the 
pup partaking freely of the abundant store of milk. These journeys to and from the 
feeding grounds are kept up until November, when old and young leave the islands. 

The decline in the number of pups born marks the end of the breeding season. 
The old bulls, grown thin and relatively weak from their long fast and protracted harem 
service, leave the rookeries and after a short rest go to sea to feed and recuperate. Even 
before the bulls leave, during the last week in July, they relax the strict discipline which 
they have maintained earlier in the season and the cows come and go at will, and idle 
bulls and eager young bachelors throng the grounds they dared not enter previously. 
At this time also the 2-year-old virgin females come ashore for their first impregnation. 
After this " break-up" there is more or less mingling of all classes of seals. The great 
majority of the cows continue to frequent the breeding grounds and the bachelors .mostly 
resort to the hauling grounds, but cows often wander among the bachelors and bachelors 
play among the cows. During the first week in August a few pups begin to play in the 
water and to make short excursions from shore. By the latter part of August pups 
may be seen swimming and frolicking along the shores at considerable distances from 
the rookeries. They continue to come ashore to nurse, however, and leave with the 
majority of the cows and bachelors in November. During August and later months 
yearlings are frequently seen playing among the pups. 

HABITS OF BACHELORS. 

The bachelors or younger males remain during the summer mainly by themselves, 
hauling out in large bands in the vicinity of the breeding rookeries on separate areas 
known as hauling grounds. Unlike the breeding males, they make frequent excursions 
to sea to feed and remain fat the entire summer. While on land they pass much of 
the time sleeping and playing with each other, and until late in the season are kept 
from the breeding grounds by the old bulls. It is from these hauling grounds that the 
drives for killing are made. Some of the bachelors remain until December, and an 
occasional few are observed during the winter. 

AGE OF SEALS. 

The male seal is capable of breeding at the age of 5 years or even 4, but does not 
normally breed until 6 or 7. The female is normally impregnated as a 2-year-old and 
gives birth to her first pup at the age of 3 years. Males and females, however, have 
approximately the same length of life, from 12 to 14 years. Fortunately the data 
regarding this important matter are fairly conclusive. Numerous females branded as 
pups not later than 1902 were seen in 1914, showing that many cows live at least 12 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 21 

years. One cow observed in 191 4 bore a large T brand consisting of a transverse bar 
across the shoulder and a longitudinal mark leading from it down the back. This brand 
is believed to have been made in 1899, and if this be true the cow still bearing it must 
have been 15 years old in 1914. She was in good condition and bore a healthy pup. 
The age attained by the bulls is attested by scattered records of animals which have 
been recognized from year to year by various peculiarities or special marks. It is also 
evidenced by the disappearance within a limited time of the large surplus of bulls pro- 
duced by the lack of regular killing during the modus vivendi. 

SEALING HISTORY IN BRIEF. 

RUSSIAN MANAGEMENT. 

When the Pribilof Islands were discovered by the Russians, in 1786, they were 
uninhabited, but a number of small colonies of natives from the Aleutians were at once 
established. In 1799 the islands passed into the control of the Russian- American Co., 
which remained in charge until the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867. 
The records of their early operations are imperfect, but so far as available they indicate 
that some 1,821,639 seals were taken between 1786 and 1834. The catch consisted 
largely of young ones of the year, and both males and females were taken, and by 1835 
the herd had become so reduced that restrictive measures were recognized as necessary. 
From 1835 to 1867, when the killing was more restricted and females were spared, the 
herd gradually increased. During this period at least 608,000 seals were taken. At 
the time of the purchase of Alaska in 1867, the herd contained, according to various 
estimates, from two to five million animals. 

AMERICAN OCCUPATION AND THE LEASING SYSTEM. 

In 1868 and 1869 about 242,000 and 87,000 seals, respectively, were taken on the 
Pribilof Islands by various independent parties. On July 1, 1870, a law was enacted 
providing for the leasing of the sealing privilege for a term of 20 years, at an annual 
rental of not less than $50,000 and a tax of $2 on each skin taken. Under the terms of 
this act, a lease was entered into with the Alaska Commercial Co., a corporation including 
some of the American sealers who had operated on the islands in 1868 and 1869. This 
company agreed to pay an annual rental of $55,000 and a tax of $2.62^ on each skin 
taken. Certain concessions were made to the natives and the right to make further 
rules and regulations governing the industry was vested in the Secretary of the Treasury. 
Under the lease the company took a quota of about 100,000 seals annually until 1889. 
The total number of skins taken on the islands during the 20- year period was 1,977,377 
and the revenue to the Government was $6,020,152. Upon the expiration of the first 
lease the Secretary of the Treasury advertised for bids for the lease of the sealing 
privilege for a further period of 20 years. Although the Alaska Commercial Co. made 
an effort to secure a renewal of the lease, a more favorable bid was received from another 
corporation, the North American Commercial Co., to whom the contract was awarded 
on March 12, 1890. The new lease provided for a rental of $60,000 per annum, and a 
tax of $9.62^2 on each skin taken. More liberal provisions were made for the care of the 
natives, and the number of seals to be killed annually was placed at the discretion of the 
Secretary of the Treasury. For the first year the number was 60,000. During the 



22 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

20 years of its incumbency the North American Commercial Co. took on the Pribilof 
Islands a total of 342,651 skins. The revenue to the Government was $3,453,844. 
The leasing system was discontinued in 1910. 

THE GROWTH OF PELAGIC SEALING. 

Until 1889 the Alaska Commercial Co. had little difficulty in getting its annual 
quota of 100,000 skins. For some years previously an additional catch was obtained by 
independent operators who killed seals at sea during their migrations and feeding excur- 
sions to and from the islands. These pelagic sealers originally comprised chiefly Cana- 
dians and Americans, but in later years many Japanese engaged in the business. 
Beginning to operate extensively about 1879 they rapidly increased in number and 
in 1889 their recorded catch was 29,858 seals. In addition, as became evident from later 
investigations, they killed many seals which could not be retrieved, and still more 
important, from 60 to 80 per cent of their catch were females whose death involved the 
loss of their unborn pups, or the starvation of newborn ones left on land, or both. 
During the period from 1868 to 1878, inclusive, the recorded pelagic catch totaled 72,134. 
From 1879 to 1911, inclusive, the total catch was 904,506. The largest recorded catch, 
59,568 skins, occurred in 1891. 

THE PARIS TRIBUNAL AND THE MODUS VIVENDI. 

Recognizing that the brutal and wasteful killing at sea was greatly against the 
interests of the herd, the United States sought to establish jurisdiction in Bering Sea as 
a closed sea and seized a number of Canadian sealing vessels found operating there. 
This led to a controversy with Great Britain, which resulted in a treaty concluded 
February 29, 1892, consigning the whole matter to the deliberation of a tribunal of 
arbitration which met at Paris in the summer of 1893. Pending this treaty and the 
result of the deliberations of the tribunal, an agreement between the United States and 
Great Britain was entered into in June, 1891, by which the latter country prohibited 
British subjects from sealing in the eastern part of Bering Sea, and the United States 
prohibited all killing whatever by its citizens excepting that of 7,500 seals annually 
for the food of the natives of the Pribilofs. Though originally effective for only one 
year, this agreement, now known as the "Modus vivendi," was renewed in 1892 and 1893. 

Among the results of the work of the Paris tribunal was a set of regulations closing 
to pelagic sealing a zone of 60 miles in radius about the Pribilof Islands, and prohibiting 
it entirely between May 1 and July 1 . These regulations went into effect in the summer 
of 1894, and of course affected only the citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 
They were subject to reexamination at intervals of five years. The experience of a 
single season showed that the result was ineffective, since the catch from pelagic sealing 
increased, and the seal herd continued to decline. The United States, therefore, 
requested Great Britain to consider the revision of the regulations. This request was 
declined, and in 1896 this country accepted the proposal of Great Britain that the two 
countries institute independent scientific investigations of the entire matter at the close 
of the five-year trial period. These investigations were made in 1896 and 1897 and a 
voluminous report on the work of the American investigators was published in 1898. 
In the meantime, on December 29, 1897, Congress had enacted a law forbidding American 
citizens from engaging in pelagic sealing at any time or place. 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 19 14. 






PlvATE II. 


- "'# - 








^M8^R^^*^V.» A- "■'.- \^. 


F4- 






'jr 










1 


tfc. i. 



1. Cow and pup sleeping, Kitovi Rookery, August 23, 1914. 






*" * ^* 



* k>~JW 1 



^ ^fc* ' 





■^#s 




A 



1 



2. Cow nursing pup, Tolstoi Rookery, August 25, 1914- 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER UEE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 23 

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS. 

On the acquisition of Alaska by the United States it became evident that the fur 
seals of the Pribilofs represented a source of revenue concerning which very little was 
known. In the spring of 1872 Henry W. Elliott was sent to the islands by the Secre- 
taries of the Smithsonian Institution and the Treasury. He remained until the spring 
of 1873 and later published a report which has appeared in several forms and which 
still remains the principal source of information regarding the early history of the 
islands and their activities. Mr. Elliott was on the islands also in the summers of 
1874 and 1876. In the summer of 1890, as a special agent of the Treasury Department, 
he again visited the Pribilofs. With him at this time was associated William Palmer, 
a naturalist in the employment of the United States National Museum. 

In the summer of 1891 a joint commission representing Great Britain and the 
United States visited the Pribilof Islands. The members for the United States were 
C. Hart Merriam and Thomas C. Mendenhall, and for Great Britain George S. Baden- 
Powell and George M. Dawson. A brief joint report was submitted by the commission 
in March, 1892, and detailed reports to their respective countries by the representatives 
of the United States and Great Britain were published later. 

The appointment of a second joint commission representing Great Britain and the 
United States to reconsider the result of the work of the Paris tribunal has already been 
referred to. This commission consisted of David Starr Jordan, Jefferson E. Moser, 
Eeonhard Stejneger, Erederic A. Lucas, Charles H. Townsend, George A. Clark, and 
Joseph Murray, representing the United States. Those representing Great Britain were 
DArcy W. Thompson, Gerald E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, James M. Macoun, and Andrew 
Halkett. Investigations were made by this commission in the summer and autumn of 
1896 and again during the same season in 1897. Several assistants accompanied the 
American commission to do special work under its direction. 

In the spring and summer of 1892 Barton W. Evermann, as a special commis- 
sioner under the State Department, made extensive studies regarding pelagic sealing 
in the North Pacific. In the course of his investigations he visited the Pribilof Islands. 

Frederick W. True, of the United States National Museum, visited the Pribilofs 
for the purpose of studying the fur seals in the summer of 1895. 

Charles H. Townsend made important studies of the fur seals on the Pribilof Islands 
during some nine seasons, in 1885, 1892 to 1896, inclusive, and in 1898 and 1900. 

In the summer of 1906 Edwin W. Sims, of the Department of Commerce and Labor, 
investigated the fur seals of the Pribilofs. 

As a special investigator to perform the naturalist's duties, Harold Heath spent 
the season of 1910 on the islands and made a census of the herd and certain special 
studies. 

In the summer of 1913 H. W. Elliott and A. E. Gallagher went to the Pribilof Islands 
as special agents of the House Committee on Expenditures in the Department of 
Commerce. 

George A. Clark, secretary to the American commission of 1896 and 1897, visited 
the Pribilofs in 1909, 191 2, and 1913 as a special agent of the Bureau of Fisheries and 
made detailed studies of the seal herd. 



24 BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OE FISHERIES. 

In addition to the results obtained by special investigators, valuable additions to 
the knowledge of fur seals have been made by certain of the regular employees on the 
islands, among whom Naturalists W. L- Hahn and M. C. Marsh and Agent W. I. Dembkey 
may be specially mentioned. 

SEALING UNDER GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT. 

During the period of leasing the sealing privilege the work of the Government on 
the Pribilofs was confined mainly to keeping a check on the operations of the lessees 
and in the management of the affairs of the natives. But under a law which provided 
for the abandoning of the leasing system the Government assumed direct charge of all the 
activities on the islands in 1910. 

The law of 1910. — Toward the close of the term of incumbency of the North Ameri- 
can Commercial Co., it was decided to abandon the system of leasing. The act author- 
izing this was passed on April 21, 19 10. It provided that all sealing should be done 
under the authority of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor through agents and offi- 
cers whose employment it authorized; the natives were to be employed and their wants 
provided for; the sealskins were to be sold to the best advantage of the Government; 
the purchase of the plant of the former lessees was authorized ; and authority was given 
the department to furnish and maintain on the islands stores of necessary supplies. 
The lease having expired on May 1, 19 10, the supplies were purchased and shipped to 
the islands, the plant of the retiring company was purchased for $60,541.48, and seal- 
skins to the number of 12,920 were taken during the first season. These skins yielded 
a net revenue to the Government of $403,964.94. 

During the year 191 1 the operations on the islands were conducted in much the 
same way as in 1910. The sealskins taken were 12,002 in number; the net receipts 
therefrom were $385,862.28. 

The treaty suspending pelagic sealing. — On December 15, 191 1, a treaty became 
effective between the United States, Great Britain, Russia, and Japan, abolishing sealing 
on the high seas for a period of 15 years. By its provisions the United States and 
Russia, as owners or guardians of the seal herds, agreed to pay to Great Britain and 
Japan, for the relinquishment of their interest in pelagic sealing, a percentage, 15 per 
cent to each, of the product of the land sealing to be conducted by each of the two 
nations. In like manner Japan agreed to pay to the United States, Great Britain, and 
Russia, respectively, ro per cent of the land catch from the small but growing herd 
under her jurisdiction. 

The law of 1912. — On August 24, 191 2, the Congress of the United States passed a 
law prohibiting all killing of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands for a period of five years 
except the number needed as food for the natives, and providing for a breeding reserve 
of not less than 5,000 3 -year-old males annually during the life of the treaty suspending 
pelagic sealing. 

Under the operation of this law, only the skins of seals taken for food have been 
handled. These, including 9 skins carried over from the previous season, numbered 
3,773 in 1912. The net proceeds were $130,640.57. 

In 1913, 2,296 sealskins were taken. With the exception of 400, which were with- 
drawn from immediate sale, these were sold and the net proceeds were about $50,000. 
The sealskins taken in 1914, reported as 2,896 in number, have not been sold. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 25 

Revenue from fur seals. — During the three years of Government management the 
net revenue from the sale of sealskins has amounted to a total of approximately 
$970,468. As elsewhere stated, $6,020,152 was derived during the period of the first 
lease of the sealing privilege and $3,453,844 during the second lease. Since the acqui- 
sition of Alaska by the United States in 1867, therefore, the direct revenue to the Gov- 
ernment from the fur seal has amounted to approximately $10,444,464. Considerable 
additional revenue has accrued to the Government from the importation of dressed 
skins from foreign countries. 

Fox skins taken since the leasing system was discontinued have yielded net reve- 
nues as follows: In 1911, $15,096.58; in 1912, $20,505.17; and in 1913, about $17,000. 
The fox skins taken in the winter of 1913-14, and numbering 280, are still on hand. 

THE CENSUS OF THE HERD IN 1914. 

THE NATURE OF THE CENSUS. 

The natural desire for complete figures has led most investigators in the past to 
attempt a full census of all classes of seals, although it has never been possible to make 
such a census absolutely accurate. The total number of seals living is, of course, a 
general measure of the state of the herd, but certain classes are more important than 
others. It is still impossible to make a full census without some proportion of estimate, 
but the cessation of pelagic sealing has provided opportunity for actual counts of the 
breeding elements of the herd, the old males and females and the young of the year. 
With these elements positively known and killing records complete for several years, 
the nonbreeding seals can be estimated by making use of the number supposed to die 
from natural causes. At present the rate of mortality must be inferred, and herein 
lies the only element of uncertainty in the census. The census of 191 4 has the advantage 
of known birth rates for the two preceding years in addition to the absence of killing 
at sea, and to this extent it is open to less objection than the figures obtained for previous 
years. 

The classes of seals actually counted for the census are the breeding or harem bulls 
in active service, the idle bulls found on the breeding ground, and the young pups of the 
season. Actual counts were made also of half bulls and bachelors, but gave only partial 
results of value chiefly as a check upon the estimates. 

The classes estimated are the yearlings and 2 -year-olds of both sexes, and the 
bachelors from 3 to 5 years of age. The number of breeding cows was directly inferred 
from the number of pups. 

THE COUNT OF HAREMS. 

Since 1896 counts have been made annually of the actual number of harems or 
breeding families in the herd. The number of bulls having harems gradually increases 
from the time the cows begin to arrive in June until the middle of July, when, at the 
so-called "height of the season," the number reaches a maximum and thereafter rapidly 
declines. The harem count, therefore, is always made at the height of the season, from 
July 10 to July 20, and the results obtained from year to year are thus fairly comparable. 
Bulls having but one cow at the time the count is made are, of course, included as harem 
bulls, and since the number of such bulls must vary even from hour to hour, this con- 



26 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



stitutes a slight element of unavoidable uncertainty. It is plain also that the more 
idle bulls there are the more single cow harems may be expected. The maximum 
development of the different rookeries is not strictly contemporaneous, and this also 
adds a variable feature to the harem counts. Such irregularities are probably com- 
pensated in the results from year to year, and in any event the total number of harems 
and idle bulls is not affected. 

The method of counting is simple and reliable. The rookeries are mostly extended 
along the shore in linear formation frequently beneath low cliffs from which the observer 
can look over them with ease. In the present condition of the herd the number of 
bulls in tier formation between the shore and the back of the rookery does not often 
exceed five, and marked rocks and natural prominences are sufficient for all necessary 
subdivision of rookery space into areas for successive counting. A few of the massed 
sections, as the flat under Hutchinson Hill and certain parts of Reef Rookery, offer 
difficulties which will increase as the herd grows and which could be overcome by simple 
devices. In such places repeated counts were made by four individuals until complete 
agreement was reached. The large relative size of the bull makes him conspicuous 
even at a considerable distance, and except when fully recumbent in a heavily massed 
area, he can not possibly be overlooked. 

Preliminary counts.— In order to overcome the lack of previous experience and to 
make general preliminary observations, numerous counts of harems and various classes 
of seals were made before the height of the season. In this way counts were made at 
least once for every rookery on St. Paul Island and some rookeries were counted from 
three to six times. In addition, weekly counts were made of all the rookeries on St. 
George Island in late June and early July by Mr. G. Dallas Hanna. Therefore, when 
the height of the season arrived those engaging in the count were familiar with the 
peculiarities of each rookery and all were agreed as to the method to be employed. 
As early as June 29, the total number of bulls in position on St. Paul Island was 1,060. 

Owing to exigencies of transportation, it was necessary to make the count of 
harems on St. George Island on July 13-14, 1914, a few days earlier than desirable. 
On these dates, 219 harems and 12 idle and young bulls were found as follows: 

Early count of harems, Si. George Island. 



Rookery. 


Harems. 


Idle bulls. 


North 


85 

46 

15 

1 

14 
58 


3 

7 
1 


1 









East Reef 


East Cliffs 


Total 


219 


12 





Height of season counts. — The height of season counts on St. Paul Island were made 
July 17, 18, and 19. Sea Tion Rock, or Sivutch, was counted July 20. The counts 
were made jointly by Messrs. Osgood, Parker, Preble, and Harmon except that of Sea 
Lion Rock which was counted by Parker and Harmon only. The early count made 
on St. George Island being obviously unsatisfactory, arrangements were made for a 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate III. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



27 



recount July 19-20 by G. Dallas Hanna, school-teacher on St. George Island. Mr. 
Hanna's figures, therefore, are used in making up the totals, which are as follows: 



Harems and idle bulls at height of season, 


IQI4. 




Rookery. 


Date of 
count. 


Harems. 


Idle 
bulls. 


ST. PAUL ISLAND. 


July 17 
...do 


58 
39 

112 
IS 

193 
91 
8 

161 

114 
90 
3 
58 
22 
18 
43 

291 


S 

1 

9 


26 

10 

2 

38 

24 

10 

I 

3 

6 



4 

20 






...do 




...do 


Reef 


...do. . 




July 20 
July 18 
...do. 




Tolstoi 




...do. . 




...do. 




...do.. . 




July 19 
. do. 


Polovina Cliffs 




..do . 




...do 




...do 


Total. St. Paul Island 






1,316 


159 


ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

North 




July 20 
...do 


94 
63 
14 

1 
14 
57 


4 
4 


3 
2 






July 19 
July 20 
...do.. .. 


Little East 


East Reef 


East Cliffs 


...do.. . 


Total, St. George Island 






243 


13 


Total. St. Paul Island 






I,3l6 
243 


IS9 
13 












I>SS9 


172 







Harem charts. — Graphic representation of the size and extent of the fur-seal herd 
has usually consisted in the coloring or shading of the areas occupied and in distinguishing, 
so far as possible, the breeding areas from the hauling grounds. For various reasons, 
this has proved unsatisfactory as an accurate measure of the herd, although for general 
comparisons it has been valuable. All such devices, to be of permanent value, should 
be based upon data which can be stated in exact terms and which utilizes fixed marks 
or natural features that can be identified by future observers. 

Before the investigation of 1914 was begun it was found that unpublished charts 
showing the number and approximate position of the harems on each rookery had been 
made in 1912 and again in 1913 bySpecial Investigator G. A. Clark. These charts showed 
the contours of the topography as surveyed by the United States Coast and Geodetic 
Survey and also indicated the position of the rocks on which conspicuous numbers were 
painted at the time of the survey. These charts were so obviously based upon sound 
method and their comparative value was so evident that their use was continued in 191 4. 
Blank copies were carried to the rookeries while the harem counts were being made and 
the position of the harems with reference to the marked rocks was roughly indicated by 
pencil notes. Immediately thereafter duplicate copies were made transcribing the notes 
in uniform style for all the rookeries. The field charts thus made have been the basis 
of the charts published with the present report. The scale is necessarily too small to 
show the exact position of each harem, but the number and approximately the arrange- 
ment of harems between any two numbered rocks is according to the facts. 



28 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

THE COUNT OF IDLE AND YOUNG BULLS. 

The idle and young bulls were counted at the same time as the harem bulls. They 
include only bulls that were on the breeding ground at that time obviously waiting for 
opportunity to obtain harems. During preliminary counting an attempt was made to 
distinguish between those that stood their ground and those commonly called "quitters" 
because they retreat from man. But as the season advanced some of the quitters were 
observed to pass into the category of harem bulls, so when the height of the season 
counts were made all bulls about the back and sides of the rookeries were regarded as 
idle bulls unless plainly less than 6 years of age. Certain others stationed at the water's 
edge in front of the rookeries were by mutual agreement regarded as idle bulls. Young 
bulls on the hauling grounds were not considered at this time. The result of the count 
of idle bulls is included in the statement of the harem count on a preceding page. 

THE COUNT OF HALF BULLS. 

The half bulls of 5 and 6 years of age are roving much of the time, sometimes being 
about the breeding areas, at other times on the hauling grounds, while at all times a 
considerable proportion are undoubtedly at sea. Their well-developed "wig" or mane 
readily distinguishes them from bachelors of 4 years and under, while their smaller size 
prevents confusion with the old bulls. The number on land at any one time can be 
counted with a great degree of accuracy. They were counted on St. Paul Island on 
July 28, the count being made practically simultaneously by different observers stationed 
for the purpose on different rookeries. A few days later a similar count was made on 
St. George Island by G. D. Hanna. The total result showed 748 half bulls for the whole 
herd, and although it may have included a few previously engaged in harem service, 
and of course takes no account of those at sea, it furnishes some measure of the strength 
of this class of seals, which is obviously greater than it has been for a number of years. 

THE COUNT OF BACHELORS. 

Counting bachelors may be compared to counting a swarm of bees, part of which is 
in the hive and the remainder out gathering honey. The full number can not be deter- 
mined with accuracy although various devices are available as the basis of estimates. 
Those on land at a given time may be closely approximated by a process of combined 
counting and estimating. After some experience, results may be obtained in this way 
which, as minimum figures, are wholly reliable. It is often possible to find a herd of 
bachelors practically all of which are lying asleep, so an observer in an elevated position 
with a good field glass can count them with considerable accuracy. Conditions for 
counting in this manner are particularly favorable on St. George Island. A large herd 
of bachelors in which all or many individuals are in motion can only be estimated by 
counting those on a certain space and correlating the number obtained with the total 
space occupied. At times the bachelors on a given hauling ground may be driven back 
a short distance and divided into small pods which are successively counted as they form 
in an irregular line to return to the sea. Taking all data of this sort into consideration, 
the observer spending an entire season on the islands is in no doubt as to the approxi- 
mate number of bachelors usually found on each hauling ground. Since the bachelors 
move about to a certain extent from one hauling ground to another and even pass 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER WEE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



29 



back and forth with some frequency between St. Paul and St. George Islands, the whole 
number hauled at a given time can only be determined by simultaneous observations 
on all the hauling grounds. The party on the islands in 1914 was large enough for such 
observations and accordingly they were made on St. Paul on July 28. A count on 
St. George Island was made a few days later by G. D. Hanna. The half bulls of 5 and 
6 years were distinguished from the remainder, which consisted of 2, 3, and 4 year olds. 
No yearlings were seen, although it is possible a very small number may have been 
present. The results of the so-called " one-day" count are as follows: 

Bachelors on land at one lime. 



Rookery and island. 



St. Paul Island, July =8, 1914: 

Kitovi " 

Lukanin a 

Gorbatch a 

Reef a 

Sivutch >> 

Tolstoi c 

Zapadni c 

Little Zapadni ' 

Zapadni Reef c 

Polovina d 

Polovina Cliffs <* 

Little Polovina a 

Morjovi e 

Vostochni e 

Total, St. Paul Island 

St. George Island, July 30-Aug. 2, 1914:/ 

North 

Staraya Artel 

Zapadni 

East Reef 

East Cliffs 

Total, St. George Island 

Total, St. Paul Island 

Total, both islands 



2, 3, and 4 
year olds. 



220 

1 75 

500 

1,500 

500 

534 

I, 290 

251 

3 

500 

45 

45 

300 

3,i5t> 



9.oi3 



441 
611 
252 
131 
751 



2,186 
9.013 



Half bulls. 



39 
69 



38 



41 
161 



64 
43 



44 
43 



218 
530 



748 



a Counted by B. W. Harmon and A. G. Whitney. 

6 Estimated from distant view but supported by better observations at other times. 

<: Counted by G. H. Parker and T. Kitahara. 

d Counted by W. H. Osgood, E. A. Preble, and J. M. Macoun. 

e Counted by W. H. Osgood and E. A. Preble. 

/ Counted by G. D. Hanna. 



THE COUNT OF PUPS. 

Importance 0} the count. — Since 1897, when it was discovered that the number of 
pups greatly exceeds the number of cows on land at any one time, the importance of an 
enumeration of the pups has been apparent. Unlike the other classes of seals, all the 
pups for a time are on land at once, and the only obstacle in the way of exact knowl- 
edge of their number is that of actual enumeration. Until the abolition of pelagic 
sealing, however, a complete count of pups was not attempted, since it involved driving 
the cows into the sea and exposing them to the sealing fleet. In 191 2 and 1913, with 
this danger past, complete counts of pups were made. The results of these counts 
were of the utmost importance, for they not only gave a measure of the new generation 
in the herd, but also furnished an accurate index of the number of breeding cows, since 
each cow gives birth annually to one pup. In 1914, therefore, another complete count 
of pups was made. 



30 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The method of counting pups. — At first glance it would seem impossible to count a 
mass of closely packed, squirming fur-seal pups as they are found on the rookeries. A 
little study and experiment, however, soon convinces that it can be done very satis- 
factorily by the method employed in 1912 and 191 3. This consists in gradually driv- 
ing the pups off in small groups, or pods, and successively counting these pods until all 
have passed in review. About August 1 practically all the pups have been born, and 
the majority are several weeks old, strong, active little fellows, able to tumble about 
the rocks and to progress on favorable ground in a somewhat jerky lope, which takes 
them along at a rate almost equal to that of a man walking. Although able to swim 
and although they do so voluntarily about a week later, they will not take to the water 
at this time unless very hard pressed. 

At the same time the adults are present on the rookeries in reduced numbers. 
Many of the old bulls have gone, and those that remain, with some notable exceptions, 
have lost their former stubbornness and pugnacity. The cows, no longer held by the 
bulls, flee in a body to the sea, leaving only the pups and a few surly bulls on land. 
The counting squad then advances and by prodding with long poles urges the bulls 
into the water or isolates them from the pups in case they prove too recalcitrant. The 
pups huddle together in large pods or scurry into holes and crevices in the rocks. Begin- 
ning at one end of the rookery, or at a runway near the middle if two squads are work- 
ing, the counters start a small pod of pups back toward the unoccupied space. The 
first pod moved is generally a small one sometimes started with a little difficulty and 
counted as a whole, if necessary. After this it becomes easy to induce successive pods 
to cross the open space and join those already counted. As soon as one pup, stronger 
or more venturesome than his fellows, starts across others follow in rapid succession, 
and so they go like sheep, one at a time, two abreast, and three abreast, galloping past 
the counters, who stand at one side, notebook in hand. In case the file widens beyond 
the possibility of accurate counting, assistants stationed on either side and somewhat 
behind the advancing line close in and either cut off the pod completely or bring it to 
proper attenuation by causing the pups in advance to move faster and those behind to 
reduce their speed. Now and then pups start back toward their original positions or 
some of those uncounted move in an undesired direction, but confusion from such moves 
is prevented by native assistants whose duty is to hold the line between the counted 
and the uncounted. As each section of rookery space is cleared, the counters search 
all the crevices and small caverns in the rocks in which pups may be concealed. On 
some rookeries such places are very numerous, and to make sure that none are over- 
looked it is necessary to pull out the pups one by one and drive them back to space 
previously surveyed. This is usually quite laborious and requires much time and 
patience. No less than 84 pups were extracted in this way from a single cavern under 
Polovina Cliffs. That some were overlooked in such places is, of course, not impossible, 
but the work was So thoroughly done in all cases that the number must be exceedingly 
small. The fur-seal pup at this time is an animal of 15 to 20 pounds in weight and 
about 2 feet in length, including the hind flippers. Therefore, one is not likely to be 
missed, except by accident. 

It is undeniable that counting pups creates a great disturbance of the rookeries. 
It literally moves each rookery a short distance along the shore, causing every seal to 
change position and bringing about a general commotion which to one unacquainted with 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate IV 




i. Fur-seal pups on Tolstoi Rookery, August 25, 1914. 




2. Fur-seal pup on Gorbatch Rookery, August 19, 1914. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 3 1 

the nature of fur seals might seem calculated to cause harm. That it really has no serious 
result is evident by the ease and rapidity with which normal conditions are resumed. 
The seals, particularly the bulls, have a powerful instinct for location, and their ability 
to recover their relative positions after great disturbance seems little short of miraculous. 
While counting is still going on at one end of a rookery the space just passed over is 
rapidly being repopulated, and within a half hour after the count is finished one finds 
the whole rookery as if nothing had happened, the cows peacefully sleeping or nursing 
their pups and the pups whose mothers are at sea gathered in pods playing or sleeping. 

In the course of the count considerable adroitness is required to avoid crowding the 
pups into large pods, in which the weaker ones are exposed to the possibility of being 
smothered by others which heap themselves over them. Out of the 93,000 pups counted 
in 1914 only 22 came to death in this way. This loss was due partly to overzealous 
assistants and partly to the difficulty of directing assistants in the continual clamor; 
but when it is considered that perhaps not more than one-third of the pups so killed 
would have reached maturity, the actual loss to the herd is seen to be so small that it is 
scarcely worth a second thought. 

As the count must be made before any of the pups have learned to swim, the few 
that are born after this time can not be enumerated. This number is very small, how- 
ever, and only serves to make it more evident that the totals accepted are minimum figures. 
The only further factor of uncertainty is the impossibility of securing an exact total for 
the dead pups, some having been carried away by the foxes and others having disinte- 
grated or been trampled out of sight before the count is made. These are the only reason- 
able objections to stating that the pup count gives exact results, and they only serve to 
strengthen the conviction that the totals accepted can not by any possibility be too 
large. For, considering the welfare of the herd, the results are minimum figures and 
therefore absolutely safe. 

The count of dead pups. — The dead pups are recorded as they are found during the 
process of counting the live ones. They are scattered over the rookeries with consider- 
able regularity, and the percentage found on the different rookeries varies but little. 
They lie in various stages of decomposition, sometimes stretched out on the sand and 
sometimes nearly hidden from view in crevices between the rocks. As successive sec- 
tions of rookery space are cleared in the counting of the live pups one member of the 
counting squad makes it his special duty to pace the ground and record all the dead 
pups, while as the work progresses other members of the party from time to time call 
his attention to dead pups noted in obscure places. After a given breeding area is 
finished the adjacent hauling grounds also are searched for dead pups, and so far as 
possible identifiable remains are noted when strewn about fox dens encountered in going 
to and from the rookeries. It is evident therefore that practically all dead pups are 
enumerated. 

Participants in the count, and results. — The count of pups was made from July 29 to 
August 5. The Canadian and Japanese experts were invited to join with the Americans 
and the services were enlisted also of Mr. A. G. Whitney, school-teacher, on St. Paul 
Island, and of Mr. A. H. Proctor, agent, and Mr. G. Dallas Hanna, school-teacher, on 
St. George Island. The count, therefore, was conducted and subscribed to by the 
following persons : W. H. Osgood, G. H. Parker, %. A. Preble, G. D. Hanna, A. H Proctor, 
84512°— S. Doe. 980, 63-3 3 



32 



BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



and A. G. Whitney, Americans; J. M. Macoun and B. W. Harmon, Canadians, and T. 
Kitahara, Japanese. The help of Mr. Whitney, who had assisted in the count in 191 3, 
was most valuable. The party was divided into two squads, making it possible to do 
the work expeditiously and finish before the pups were ready to take to the water. On 
St. Paul Island, Kitovi, Ardiguen, and the Zapadnis were counted by Parker, Kitahara, 
and Harmon; Lukanin, Tolstoi, Lagoon, and Morjovi by Osgood, Preble, and Whitney, 
assisted by Macoun, except on Lagoon; Gorbatch, Reef, the Polovinas, and Vostochni 
were counted jointly, Parker, Kitahara, and Harmon forming one squad and Osgood, 
Preble, Macoun, and Whitney another. On St. George Island, Zapadni was counted by 
Osgood, Preble, and Hanna; Staraya Artel and North by Parker, Kitahara, Harmon, 
and Proctor, and East rookeries by Parker, Preble, Kitahara, Harmon, and Proctor. It 
is thus seen that no less than three individuals of three different nationalities participated 
in practically every count. All members of the party expressed themselves as convinced 
of the thoroughness of the method and the reliability of the results. The error in count- 
ing is only that limiting any human act, and in this case is almost negligible, and cer- 
tainly on the side of conservatism. 

Following is the result of the count : 

Count of pups, Pribilof Islands, 1(114. 



Rookery. 


Date of 
count. 


Living 
pups. 


Dead 
pups. 


Total. 


ST. PAUL ISLAND. 


July 31 
...do 


2,072 

1,761 

6,067 

64s 

13.353 

3>984 

373 

9, 760 

7,499 

4,840 

203 

3.484 

1,431 

910 

2,268 

19,210 


47 
73 
85 
11 

206 
68 
2 

174 

126 
79 
3 
71 
18 
17 
44 

499 


2, 119 
1.834 
6,152 

656 
13.559 
4.052 

375 
9.934 
7.625 
4.919 

206 
3.555 
1,449 

927 
2.312 
19,709 






July 30 
July 31 
...do 




Reef 




July 30 
Aug. 1 
...do 




Tolstoi 




...do 




...do 




...do 




July 29 
...do 






...do 




Aug. 2 
...do 




Total 




77,860 


1.523 


79.383 


ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

North 


Aug. 4 
...do 


5; 189 
4.215 
1,015 
25 
576 
2,627 


112 

63 

8 

1 

5 

31 


5.30I 

4,278 

1,023 

26 

581 

2,658 






...do 




Aug. 5 
...do 


East Reef 


East Cliffs 


...do 


Total 




13,647 


220 


13,867 


Total, St. Paul Island 




77, 860 
13.647 


1. 523 

220 


79,383 
13,867 


Total, St. George Island 








91. 507 


1.743 


93.250 







THE ESTIMATES. 



If all the bachelor seals came to land at any one time, it would be possible to count 
them with a fair degree of accuracy by driving and podding as in the case of the pups. 
But, although approximately the same number is found on each hauling ground for 
considerable periods, there is always a large and indeterminate number in the sea, moving 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 33 

from place to place, going far out to feed, passing from one hauling ground to another, 
and crossing between St. Paul and St. George Islands. Moreover, it is highly probable 
that a considerable proportion of the yearlings do not come to land at all. Therefore 
no complete enumeration of nonbreeding seals is possible. 

Since it is from this class of seals that the output of salable skins is derived, a 
knowledge of their numbers is of the highest importance and it is a lack of such knowledge 
that has caused much loss to the Government in the past. The fortunate condition 
which under proper authorization will make it possible to obtain a large part of this 
knowledge in the future has been discussed in another place (p. 103). For the census of 
1 914, however, only estimates are possible, and they can not be regarded as more than 
carefully considered approximations. It is with some reluctance that they are put forth, 
although all conclusions drawn from them are supported by convictions derived from 
actual observation. Every effort has been made to make them conservative and in no 
case are they less so than those of previous investigators. 

The basis of the estimates in most cases has been the birth rate. Fixed percentages 
for assumed natural mortality in successive years plus the number of seals killed have 
been subtracted from the number born, the remainder being the supposed number sur- 
viving. The assumed percentages of natural loss are 50 per cent for the first year, 15 
per cent for the second, 10 per cent for the third, and 5 per cent for the fourth. 
So far as the percentages have a definite numerical basis, it is that of the quotas which the 
lessees found it possible to secure during commercial killing. They are the percentages 
which seemed to prevail during pelagic sealing and therefore are ultraconservative when 
applied to present conditions. 

Producing but one young annually and subjected to constant killing for more than 
100 years, the fur seal still maintains itself in numbers which, although reduced, are by 
no means small. It has made ready recuperative response to every partial suspension 
of killing and its present condition as shown by observations in the past season is unmis- 
takably one of rapid increase. Therefore, it is evident that these percentages give results 
much more likely to be underestimates than otherwise. An underestimate tends to the 
conservation of the herd by fostering limited killing. All that can be said against it is 
that it may involve some money loss to the Government. An overestimate, on the 
other hand, would endanger the herd, and while it might lead to action productive of 
immediate revenue, it would in the end also cause money loss. 

Yearlings. — These are estimated as one-half the pups known to have been born 
in 1913, as determined by the full count made by special investigator G. A. Clark. The 
theory that 50 per cent of each year's pups are lost during the first season is not as yet 
definitely proved but may be accepted as closely approximating the truth and as fur- 
nishing a basis for fair comparison with former estimates. Whatever may be the truth, 
it is believed that the first year's mortality is less than 50 per cent rather than more, 
so the estimate may be regarded as a moderate one. This loss, of course, includes the 
pups that die on the islands as well as those lost at sea. The deaths before the migra- 
tion amount, under present conditions, to from 2 to 3 per cent of the pups born. 

The total of pups counted in 1913 was 92,269; therefore the yearlings alive in 1914 
are estimated as 46,135. 

Two-year-olds. — These were born in 191 2 and were included in the full count of 
that year which totaled 81,984. On the basis of 50 per cent first year's mortality there 



34 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



should have been 40,992 of them as yearlings in 1913. As none of them were killed, 
they should have returned the next year in numbers undiminished except from natural 
causes. As a matter of fact they appeared in 1914 in large numbers, constituting in 
the latter part of the season at least two-fifths of the bachelors found on the hauling 
grounds. Exact enumeration of them is impossible since all are not present at any one 
time. In 1912, 5,529 of these seals were branded as pups and a considerable number 
of these were found throughout the season of 1914, but this furnishes no criterion of the 
total number of surviving 2-year-olds. The only feasible method of estimating them 
is by subtracting a fixed percentage from the number estimated as yearlings the pre- 
ceding year. This percentage has been rather arbitrarily determined as 15 per cent, 
but from experience during commercial killing in past years it is evident that the result 
obtained in this way is a conservative one. That is, in former years with the herd 
approximately the same size as now and in spite of the drain of both land and pelagic 
killing, the lessees found it possible to obtain a quota of 2-year-olds as large or larger 
than the number estimated in this way. Deducting 15 per cent from 40,992, the number 
of yearlings estimated for 1913, gives 34,844 as the number of 2-year-olds in 1914, half 
of these being males and half females. 

Three-year-old males. — These were born in 191 1, a year for which only very incom- 
plete data are available. No count of pups was made in that year, nor any determination 
of the average harem even for a single rookery. The count of harems was made, how- 
ever, and this combined with knowledge of the conditions in 1910 and 191 2 furnish prac- 
tically the only data for estimating the number born in 1 9 1 1 . There are two methods of 
making such an estimate, one by deductions drawn from the average harem on a single 
rookery known for 1910 and 191 2, the other from the count of pups in 191 2 and the 
relative effect of pelagic sealing. 

The average harem method may be considered first. During pelagic sealing or in 
all years previous to 1912, the birth rate for a given year was estimated by counting 
the pups on one or several rookeries only and determining the average number of pups 
to a harem for these rookeries, after which this average harem was multiplied by the 
total number of harems, the result being the supposed total number of pups, and by 
inference, the number of cows. Applying this method to the years 1912, 1913, and 
1914, for which we have actual counts, it is- apparent that the estimates for former 
years must be greatly below the facts. This is shown by the following tabulation : 

Comparison of actual counts of pups with estimates based on an average harem. 



Total number of harems 

Pups counted on Kitovi 

Average harem on Kitovi 

Estimate of pups, entire herd, under average 

harem method 

Actual count of pups 

Percentage of underestimate 



1,387 

1,979 

36.0 



1,381 
1,966 
31-7 



1,369 



l,3S8 
1.975 
37-3 

S°» 653 

81,984 

38.2 



1,403 
1,85s 
42. 2 

59,206 
92, 269 

35.3 



a Mean between figures for 1910 and 1912. 



i>559 
2, 119 
36. 5 

56,903 

93.250 

38.9 



The inference is thus very strong that the estimates for 1909 and 19 10 are less than 
two-thirds of the actual number and that a similar estimate for 191 1 would be propor- 
tionately small. Since the total number of harems (actually counted) for 191 1 falls 



Buix. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate V. 



.▼J 3 



$ |? ;: ■; 4 
**$* m« wm i 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 35 

between the numbers for 1910 and 1912, we may assume that the average harem does 
the same. This gives 34.5 as the estimated average harem on Kitovi in 191 1, and 
multiplying this by 1,369, the total number of harems, gives 47,230 as the estimated 
total of pups. Assuming that this is two-thirds of the actual number gives 70,845, 
total pups, in 191 1, the best result that can be obtained with the data available. 

Considering now the other method, we find that a very reasonable argument may 
be advanced that, since the herd was in a declining condition, the number of pups born 
in 1911 would not be smaller than the number born in 1912. The treaty abolishing 
pelagic sealing went into effect December 15, 191 1. Therefore pelagic sealing was going 
on in 1911 only slightly less than in 1910. There is little doubt that from 10,000 to 
15,000 cows were lost to the herd in 191 1 through this means. Since we know that in 
spite of this drain the cows of 191 1 produced 81,984 pups in 191 2, it is reasonable to 
suppose that the cows of 1910, having been subjected with the whole herd to one season 
less of pelagic sealing, would produce at least as many pups as those of 191 1. From 
this reasoning, therefore, the assumed births in 1911 might be stated in round num- 
bers as 82,000. It is evident, however, that pelagic sealing created many abnormal 
conditions in the herd, and in view of the pup count of 191 4 showing practically no 
increase over that of 191 3, as well as various figures obtained by the Japanese on Robben 
Island, it is unsafe to assume fixed rates of annual increase or decrease. There are too 
many factors involved to make it possible to say with certainty that such an estimate 
is a conservative one. 

Taking both estimates into consideration, the one of 70,845 and the other of 82,000, 
it may be concluded that the number born in 191 1 was between 70,000 and 80,000. For 
our purposes, and keeping on the side of conservatism, 75,000 may be taken as a number 
open to no serious objections. Taking off 50 per cent for first year's mortality and 15 
per cent for the second year, leaves 31,875 2-year-olds in 1913, of which half, or 15,937, 
were males. 

It is necessary next to deduct the number of 2-year-old males killed in 1913. The 
only basis for determining this is the weight of the skins, and, although this is known to 
be unreliable, it furnishes the best approximation of the truth that can be obtained. 
The food killings in 191 3 were mostly intended to include only 3-year-olds, but a number 
of skins weighing less than 5^ pounds were taken. For purposes of an estimate made 
before a thorough study of the subject of weights and ages, it may be assumed that 
skins weighing under 5^4 pounds were those of 2-year-olds. Of 2,399 seals killed in the 
calendar year 191 3 there are records of weights of the skins of 2,357, of which 515 were, 
on this basis, 2-year-olds. Subtracting this from 15,937 leaves 15,422 as the estimated 
number of 2-year-old males at the close of the year 1913. Although it is probably too 
high, 10 per cent k=s may be assumed for the next year in order to keep the estimate 
on the safe side. This gives us 13,880 as the number of 3-year-old males in 1914. This 
is purely an estimate, but in the light of past experience in the killing of large quotas 
it can not be regarded as excessive. Three-year-olds were seen in large numbers on all 
the hauling grounds and in all the food drives. On August 8 1,572 bachelors were 
driven from Reef hauling ground and 447 were killed. At least 411 of these, or 26 per 
cent of those driven, on the basis of the weight of the skins, were 3-year-olds. This 
result might be applied in various more or less unsatisfactory ways to estimate the 
total number of 3-year-olds, but it is of value principally as proof that seals of this class 



36 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

were present in large numbers. The estimate of 3-year-old males at the beginning of 
1914, therefore, is 13,880. 

Four-year-old males. — The 4-year-olds living in 1914 were born in the summer of 1910. 
There was no count of pups in that year but an estimate was made by the average harem 
method discussed under the estimate of 3-year-olds (p. 34). Using this method, the 
average harem on Kitovi, which was 31.7, was multiplied by the total number of harems, 
giving as a result 43,777. The estimated error in the method requires an addition of 
21,888 which gives 65,665 as the probable increase for 1910. Reducing this by 50 per 
cent for the first year's mortality and 15 per cent for the second leaves 27,907 of both 
sexes or 13,954 2-year-old males in 1912. Although the killings in 1912 were supposed 
to include a considerable number of 2-year-olds, the records show only 541 yielding skins 
that weighed less than 5^ pounds and these, therefore, are all that can safely be assumed 
as 2-year-olds. Deducting these and in addition 10 per cent for natural deaths in the 
third year, reduces the total to 12,072 3-year-olds at the opening of the season of 1913. 
Of these, 1,610 were killed having skins weighing from 5^ to 8 pounds, inclusive, and 
therefore 10,462 were left. The natural mortality in the fourth year is believed to be 
very small, perhaps negligible, but it may be granted for the sake of conservatism that 
it is as much as 5 per cent. Therefore the estimated number of 4-year-olds in 1914 is 
10,462 less 523, or 9,939. Although no exact count was possible, the number of 4-year- 
olds observed on the hauling grounds in the season of 1914 was sufficient to make it 
reasonably certain that this estimate is not beyond the facts. They were seen on all the 
hauling grounds and in some cases constituted fully 25 per cent of the bachelors present 
at a given time. 

i Five-year-old males. — The 5-year-olds of 1914 are of the generation of 1909 and were 

subjected to both land and pelagic sealing as 2-year-olds. The best method of estimating 
their present numbers is based on the breeding reserve of 191 2. In that year, before 
killing began, 2,005 bachelors supposed to be 3-year-olds were given a temporary brand and 
reserved as breeders, exempt from killing for at least one season. In 1913, they became 
4-year-olds and if we allow 5 per cent for possible deaths during the winter, they then 
numbered 1,905. Since killing in 1913 was restricted largely to 3-year-olds, the re- 
serve of the previous year was subjected to no more than a slight decrease. According 
to the records, 247 skins weighing over 8 pounds and under 12 pounds. were taken in 
1913, and at least the majority of these were probably 4-year-olds. This leaves 1,658, 
and since the loss in the fifth year is doubtless too small to be taken into account, it is 
safe to say there were 1,658 5-year-old males living in 1914. About one-third of them 
were to be seen on land at any time during the season of 1 914. A count of half bulls 
made practically simultaneously on all the hauling grounds in 1914 showed 748 present, 
and of these it can be said that 5-year-olds constituted 80 per cent or more. It is probable 
also that more than 2,000 escaped in 191 2 and 191 3, since the killings in those years were 
confined to a few hauling grounds and since the records of weights show that no very 
large number of 2-year-olds was killed on land in 191 1. It is evident, therefore, that the 
estimate of 5 -year-olds is well within the facts. Next year, there should be from 1,500 
to 2,000 lusty 6-year-olds ready if necessary for harem duty. 

Summary of estimates of nonbreeding seals. — The following table shows the number 
of nonbreeding seals estimated to be present in 1914, and the method of making the 
estimate : 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 37 

Estimate of nonbreeding seals, 1914. 
Yearlings : 

Pups born in 1913 and actually counted 92, 269 

Deduction for natural mortality in first year, 50 per cent 46, 134 

Yearlings of both sexes in 1914 46, 135 

Two-year-olds: 

Pups born in 1912 and actually counted 81, 984 

Deduction for natural mortality in first year, 50 per cent 40, 992 

Yearlings in 1913 40, 992 

Deduction for natural mortality in second year, 15 per cent 6, 148 



Two-year-olds of both sexes in 1914 34, 844 

Three-year-old males: 

Pups born in 1911, on the basis of the estimated average harem on one rookery, 

Kitovi 47, 230 

Addition for probable error in method 23, 615 

Estimated number of pups born in 1911, by average harem method 70, 845 

Estimated number of pups born in 1911, by inference from number counted in 1912 . 82, 000 



Conservative mean between the results of the two methods 75, 000 

Deduction for first year 's mortality, 50 per cent 37, 500 



Yearlings in 1912 37, 500 

Deduction for second year's mortality, 15 per cent 5, 625 

Two-year-olds of both sexes in 1913 31, 875 

Deduction for females, 50 per cent 15, 938 

Two-year-old males in 1913 15, 937 

Two-year-old males killed in 1913 515 - 

Two-year-old males at close of 1913 15, 422 

Deduction for mortality in third year, 10 per cent 1, 542 

Three-year-old males at beginning of 1914 13, 880 

Four-year-old males: 

Estimate of number born in 1910, based on average harem of Kitovi 43, 777 

Addition for estimated error in method 21, 888 



Estimated pups born in 1910 65, 665 

Deduction for assumed natural mortality in first year, 50 per cent 32, 833 

Yearlings, both sexes, in 191 1 32,832 

Deduction for natural mortality in second year, 15 per cent 4, 925 

Two-year-olds, both sexes, in 1912 27, 907 

Deduction for females, 50 per cent 13, 953 

Two-year-old males in 1912 13, 954 

Killed as two-year-olds in 1912 541 

Two-year-old males at close of 1912 13, 413 

Deduction for natural mortality in third year, 10 per cent 1, 341 

Three-year-old males in 1913 ' 12, 072 

Killed as three-year-olds in 1913 1,610 

Three-year-olds at close of 1913 10, 462 

Deduction for mortality in fourth year, 5 per cent 523 

Four-year-old males in 1914 9, 939 



38 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Five-year-old males: 

Reserved in 1912 as 3-year-olds 2, 005 

Deduction for possible mortality in fourth year, 5 per cent 100 

Four-year-olds in 1913 1, 905 

Killed as four-year-olds in 1913 247 

Five-year-old males in 1914 i, 658 

Total estimate of nonbreeding seals 106, 456 

THE COMPLETE CENSUS OF 1914. 

Following is a summary of the results of the counts and estimates. Discussion of 
the methods used in obtaining the figures may be found elsewhere. 

Complete census of fur seals, 1 91 4. 

Pups (actual count) a 93, 250 

Bearing cows (inferred from number of pups, including dead) 93, 250 

Yearlings of both sexes (based on known birth rate in 1913) 46, 135 

2-year-olds of both sexes (based on known birth rate in 1912) 34, 844 

3-year-old males (based on assumed birth rate in 1911) 13, 880 

4-year-old males (based on estimated birth rate in 1910) 9, 939 

5-year-old males (based on known reserve of 1912) 1, 658 

Idle bulls (actual count) 172 

Harem bulls (actual count) 1, 559 

Total 294, 687 

Total, exclusive of pups 201, 439 

RESULTS OF THE CENSUS. 

INDEPENDENT RESULTS. 

Whatever past conditions may have been, the census of 1914 shows the fur-seal 
herd to contain upward of 294,000 animals, by no means a small number. The rela- 
tive proportions of the different classes of seals, while not yet wholly ideal, are such as 
to indicate clearly that they can be made so in another year. Furthermore, they are 
such as to forecast a rapid expansion of the herd in the near future. There are not less 
than 93,250 mature breeding cows and by conservative estimate about 17,000 virgin 
cows, or a total stock of approximately 110,000 breeding females. There are 1,559 
harem bulls and 172 idle bulls, and although this may not be as many as desirable it is 
gratifying to note that there are at least 1 ,600 half bulls of five years of age which may 
have effected some service in the season of 1914 and which will undoubtedly participate 
in the harem life of 1915. With allowance for probable natural deaths, there will be 
on the islands in 191 5 not less than 3,000 bulls of 6 years of age and over. A rea- 
sonable calculation of the cows to be served next year would be 99,000 adults and 18,500 
virgin 2-year-olds, a total of 118,500. The 3,000 bulls, therefore, if evenly distributed, 
would have 39 to 40 cows each, a number which is certainly not greater than their 
capacity. Thus all apprehension as to insufficiency of male life will cease in 191 5. 

o This includes 1,743 pups already dead at the time of the count, but for comparative purposes this is desirable, the same 
method having been followed in 1912 and 1913. Since a large percentage of the pups will not survive the first winter, they form 
at best a variable element so far as the total seals of all classes is concerned. The strength of the herd at the opening of the sea- 
son of 1914 is shown by the total, exclusive of pups. 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate VI. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 



39 



The hauling grounds in 1914 are teeming with bachelor seals of 4 years of age 
and under. There are nearly 10,000 4-year-old bachelors and upward of 13,000 3-year- 
olds, so male life for the future is more than assured. The 9,000 to 10,000 4-year-olds 
living in 1914 will, if wholly spared, undoubtedly create an overstock of males, and this 
constitutes the principal undesirable feature of the herd as found in 1914. The wel- 
fare of the herd demands that some of them should be killed in 191 5. By so doing and 
by killing a sufficient number of 4-year-olds and 3-year-olds at the same time the rela- 
tive proportions of the different classes of seals would be adjusted to a basis as nearly 
ideal as our knowledge permits. No matter what course is pursued, the important 
question will always be what proportion of young males may be killed with safety. 
The proportion is the same now that it always will be, and nothing is gained by delay. 
Whether the proportion be small or large, it is obviously safe to take it now as well as 
in future years. 

COMPARATIVE RESULTS. 

Comparing the results of the census of 1914 with those of 1912 and i9i3,made in 
much the same manner and at the same stage of the season," we find various informing 
features. Although there is a general increase, it is not evenly distributed and it is 
evident that various imperfectly understood effects of land and pelagic sealing in previ- 
ous years are involved. The general comparative results of the three censuses are shown 
in the following table : 

General comparison of recent censuses. 



Class of seals. 



Breeding bulls 

Breeding cows 

Idle bulls 

Young bulls (chiefly 5-year-olds) . 

4-year-old bachelors 

3-year-ol4 bachelors 

2-year-old bachelors 

Yearling bachelors 

2-year-old cows 

Yearling cows 

Pups 



Total . 



1912 a 



1,358 
81,984 

"3 

199 

IOO 

2,000 

11,000 

13,000 

11,000 

13,000 

81,984 



215,738 



1913 a 



1,403 

92, 269 

105 

259 

2,000 
10,000 
15,000 
20,000 
15,000 
20,000 
92,269 



268,305 



1,559 

93,250 

172 

1,658 

9,939 

13,880 

17,422 

23,068 

17,422 

23,067 

93.250 



294, 6S7 



a See Clark, Science, N. S-, XXXVIII, p. 919, Dec. 26, 1913; also Bur. Fisheries Doc. 780, p. 97, I9r3; and Hearings Comm. 
Exp. Dept. Cornmr., H. R., No. 2, 63rd Cong., 2nd sess., pp. 494-499, 1914. 



Comparison of harems and idle bulls. — In 1912 there were only 1,358 harems, the 
smallest number during American ownership, and the number had been less than 1,400 
in every year since 1906. In 1913 there was a slight increase to 1,403, and in 1914 there 
were as many as 1,559, showing the most marked increase and in fact the only important 
one since that following the modus vivendi some 20 years ago. 

With few exceptions, the harem bulls of 1914 were at least 6 years old, and therefore 
were killable seals of 2 and 3 years, respectively, in 1910 and 1911, when land killing was 
practically undiminished. Moreover, 200 skins (8-12 pounds) were taken in 1912, 
which were mostly of 4-year-olds. Therefore the increase in harem bulls in 1914 can not 
have been due to the limitation of land killing unless it is assumed that with former 

a Fair comparison is not possible with the census made by Mr. H. W. Elliott in 1913, since it was made some two weeks earlier 
in the season when a large number of pups were still unborn. 



40 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

conditions prevailing a larger number would have been killed as 4- year-olds in 19 12, the 
first year of the suspension of commercial killing. This is scarcely probable, so it is 
plainly evident that the increase was accomplished in spite of land killing and was 
wholly due to the cessation of pelagic sealing, the toll of which was reduced in 191 1 
and entirely cut off in 191 2 and 1913. Considering both harem bulls and idle bulls, 
the total stock of breeding males has grown from 1,471 in 1912 to 1,505 in 1913 and to 
1,741 in 1914, irrespective of land killing. 

The increased number of harems in 191 4 also shows that the number of young bulls 
counted in 1912 and 1913 did not include all that were living. The total of harem 
bulls, idle bulls, and young bulls in the census of 191 3 was 1,767. These classes furnished 
the harem bulls and idle bulls for 191 4 to the number of 1,731, which makes it necessary 
to assume a mortality between seasons of only 36, a number much too small, since the 
evidence is clear that approximately one-sixth of the harem bulls die annually. The 
difference between 191 2 and 1913 is 162, which indicates a smaller discrepancy but still 
a discrepancy. Both cases illustrate what is evident throughout the study of fur seals, 
namely, that the numbers of nonbreeding seals are almost invariably underestimated. 

Although the increase in harem bulls is not evenly distributed, the great majority 
of the rookeries show at least a little increase. The only ones on St. Paul Island failing 
to do so are Zapadni Reef, Little Polovina, and Vostochni, and of these Zapadni Reef 
remains unchanged, while the decrease on Little Polovina and Vostochni is insignificant, 
amounting to only five harems in all. Notwithstanding the great increase on St. Paul 
Island, there is shown a general decrease on St. George Island, the only rookery having 
an increase being Staraya Artel, which shows four harems more than in 1913. The 
total number of harems on St. George in 1914 is 243, as against 261 in 1913 and 281 in 
191 2. The most obvious explanation of this condition is that it is due to the gregarious 
instinct and the tendency for the larger herd to recruit itself from the smaller one. 
Whether or not this be a wholly sufficient explanation, it is of interest to note that the 
same principle does not seem to be effective in all cases when applied to the different 
rookeries on St. Paul Island. Thus some of the smaller rookeries show large percentages 
of gain, while Vostochni, the largest of all, is one of the very few showing an actual loss. 
Moreover, St. George, while having a decrease of bulls, has an increase of cows, so the 
cause, if there be any definite one, is evidently peculiar. 

The total number of idle bulls in 1914 is 172, and although this is not a large 
number it should be noted that the rate of increase over 191 3 is over 60 per cent. The 
distribution of idle bulls is somewhat irregular, and although they seem most numerous 
about large rookeries and massed sections, this is not always the case. For example, 
East Cliffs, a rookery of 57 harems, had only two idle bulls, while Lagoon, with 8 harems, 
had the same number, and Zapadni Reef, with 3 harems, had 1 idle bull. In general, 
the increase in idle bulls seems to be largest on rookeries having a large increase of 
harems, as Zapadni and Tolstoi. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 

Comparison of harems and idle bulls, 1912-IQI4. 



41 



Rookery. 


1913 


1913 


1914 


Harem 

bulls. 


Idle 
bulls. 


Total 
bulls. 


Harem 
bulls. 


Idle 
bulls. 


Total 
bulls. 


Harem 
bulls. 


Idle 
bulls. 


Total 
bulls. 


St. Paul Island: 


53 
38 

109 
11 

179 

S7 

g 

l°3 

K>5 

61 

3 

44 

21 

II 

37 

237 


2 
6 
9 


12 
5 


10 
9 
5 

4 
1 

4 

26 


55 
44 

118 
11 

191 
62 
8 

"3 

114 
66 
3 
48 
22 
11 
41 

263 


44 
33 

106 
II 

171 

67 

6 

120 

106 
58 
3 
44 
19 
21 
40 

293 


7 
3 
3 
1 

17 
1 

9 
6 
7 

2 


3 

18 


51 
36 

109 
12 

1S8 
68 
6 

129 

112 
65 
3 
46 
19 
21 
43 

311 


58 

39 
112 

15 
193 

91 

16* 
114 
90 
3 
58 
22 
18 
43 
291 


5 

1 

9 



26 

10 

2 

38 

24 

10 

I 

3 

6 



4 

20 


63 
40 

121 
15 

219 

IOI 

10 

199 

138 

100 

4 
61 
28 
18 
47 
311 
































Total 


I.077 


93 


1,170 


1,142 


77 


1,219 


1,316 


159 


1,475 


St. George Island: 

North 


117 
52 
32 

1 

56 


7 
4 
2 
O 

6 

1 


124 
56 
34 
I 
29 
57 


104 
59 

21 

2 

17 

58 


5 
3 
1 

6 
10 


109 
62 
22 

2 
23 
68 


94 
63 
14 
I 
14 
57 


4 
4 



3 

2 


98 
67 
14 
I 
17 
59 






Little East 


East Reef 


East Cliffs 


Total St. George Island 
Total St Paul Island 


281 
1.077 


20 
93 


301 
1, 170 


261 
1,142 


°2S+3 
77 


286 
1,219 


243 
1,316 


13 
159 


256 
1.465 


i,3S8 


"3 


1. 471 


1,403 


105 


i.S°5 


1,559 


172 


1,721 





a Addition for later count, the first count having been made slightly before the height of the season. 

Comparison of nonbreeding seals. — A general increase in all classes of nonbreeding 
seals is perhaps the most obvious comparative result of the census. The total increase 
of all classes from 1913 to 1914 is 25,959, an d of this only 1,204 are breeding seals, leav- 
ing 24,755 as t ne increment of nonbreeding animals. The classes showing the greatest 
gains are the 4 and 5 year old males, which have more than quadrupled. In the 
case of the 5-year-olds, the number is still not far from ideal, but the number of 4-year- 
olds is unquestionably excessive and disproportionate. It is obviously the result of 
the limited killings of 1913 and 1914. That it provides conditions for an overstock of 
males in 1915 and 1916 is so clear that there is no room for argument. Two and 3 year 
old males also show a steady increase since 191 2 and are now living in numbers beyond 
all possible future need for breeding purposes. The subsequent effect of these large 
numbers of surplus males is more fully discussed elsewhere. A tabular comparison of 
the estimates of nonbreeding seals is found on another page (p. 37). 

Comparison of cows and pups. — A somewhat unexpected result of the census is the 
very small increase shown in the number of breeding cows and pups. In 191 3 there 
were 92,269 pups and in 1914 there were 93,250, an increase of only 981. It is incon- 
ceivable that such a small increment could have been possible unless the herd was in 
abnormal condition. Any idea that the figures are wrong may be dismissed immedi- 
ately, for the testimony of nine men who counted in 1914, as well as that of several 
others who counted in 191 2 and 191 3, is that the method of counting is sound and the 
results reliable. Abnormal conditions, therefore, must furnish the explanation. These 



42 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

conditions might be due to one or more of three causes: (i) disease, (2) effects of land 
killing, and (3) effects of pelagic sealing. If disease is in any way responsible, the 
nature of it is wholly unknown and no direct evidence of its existence in the past or at 
present is available. Disease, then, can not be considered. 

Taking up the possible effects of land killing, we find room for considerable argu- 
ment. That land killing may have reduced male life to numbers insufficient for breed- 
ing purposes is certainly not impossible, for there must be some stage of depletion of 
males at which cows will begin to escape service. Whether or not a shortage of males 
existed, land killing can be blamed only in so far as it supplemented pelagic killing. To 
the effect of land killing was added that of pelagic killing, and the two combined to 
reduce the stock of breeding males. That land killing alone was not responsible is 
shown by the increase of harem bulls in 191 3 and 191 4, which were exposed to the full 
measure of land killing but had a partial respite from pelagic killing. 

If all the cows were not served in 191 3, this would be evident in 191 4 only by a 
reduced number of births, or by a small increase, since cows without pups might easily 
come and go undetected. There was only a very small increase of births in 1914, so, 
regardless of land killing, it is necessary to determine so far as possible whether or not 
the supply of males in 191 3 was inadequate from any cause whatever. In 191 3 there 
were 1,403 harem bulls, 105 idle bulls, and 259 young or half bulls, a total of 1,767 
possible breeders. These bulls had the responsibility of 92,269 adult cows and 15,000 
virgins or nubiles, a total of 107,269 cows, making an average of 60.6 cows to each bull. 
If the half bulls are not included, the average is increased to 71. These undoubtedly 
are high averages, much higher than desirable, but that they are so high as to allow 
cows to go unserved is difficult to prove. Such conditions may be detrimental in the 
long run, but that the bulls, at least for a time, are equal to such emergencies can not be 
questioned. Even when bulls are in superabundance, harems of more than 60 cows are 
voluntarily cared for with great frequency, and there is unlimited evidence that every 
healthy bull is capable of serving 60 to 70 cows whenever opportunity permits or neces- 
sity requires. Granting the capacity of the bulls, it remains to inquire what their oppor- 
tunities were and whether the average is fairly applied. In 191 3, as in 1914 and other 
seasons, there were doubtless many harems of small size, some in fact consisting of only 
one cow. Therefore, if all cows are served, some of the bulls must care for a number 
considerably above the average, and when the elements of time and varying rookery 
conditions are considered the possibility that at least a few cows may have gone unserved 
is greatly increased. This possibility could scarcely be admitted if numerous idle bulls 
were present. At best, however, it can only be regarded as a bare possibility, for the 
reduced number of males in 191 3 can not be wholly responsible for the small increase of 
cows and pups in 1914, because the same relative number of males was present in 1912 
and a large increase of cows and pups followed in 1913. The results of insufficient male 
life should have been as apparent in 1913 as in 1914. This makes it clear that other 
causes than a shortage of bulls must be sought for the small increment of 1914. 

This brings us to further consideration of pelagic sealing which affected not only 
males but females. It was stopped in 191 1, so no direct loss of females since that time 

a As shown on a preceeding page, this number is too small, but since it is not certain that all of this class normally breed, 
this need not be considered here. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 43 

can be laid at its door. But its indirect ramifying effects can not cease until an entire 
regeneration of the herd has taken place. In a normal herd the cows would consist of 
evenly graded proportions of young and old, and approximately one-tenth would drop 
out each year through natural termination of life. The indiscriminate slaughter of 
pelagic sealing probably destroyed these proportions, causing the death rate at present 
to be abnormal. Although it is known that pelagic sealers secured large numbers of 
old cows, it is also to be remembered that the young cows spend more time at sea than 
the old ones and therefore must have been more exposed to the sealer. It naturally 
follows that the cessation of pelagic sealing may have left the herd in 191 1 with a pre- 
ponderance of aged cows. If this be the case, the number of deaths from old age in the 
succeeding years would be abnormal and disproportionate, perhaps very few in 191 2 and 
very many in 191 3. An increase in young male life is plainly evident in 1914, making 
it reasonable to infer a similar increase of young females, and thus the supposition is 
favored that the small total of females is due to losses among those advanced in years. 
Therefore it is not improbable that the number of old cows dying in 1913-14 was almost 
equal to the number of young ones bearing pups for the first time, and if so the total 
number of cows and pups in 191 4 is explained. The result would have been accom- 
plished by a death rate among old cows only 3X per cent above the normal. This is 
shown by the f ollowing statement : 

Demonstration of probable abnormal mortality of old cows, 1913-14. 

Old cows in 1913 92, 269 

Normal death rate of old cows, 10 per cent a 9, 226 

Normal expectation of old cows in 1914 83, 043 . 

Virgin cows in 1913 less 10 per cent probable mortality 13, 500 

Total normal expectation of cows in 1914 96, 543 

Actual number of cows in 1914 '. 93, 250 

Deficiency of cows in 1914 3, 293 

Normal deaths of old cows, 1913-14 9, 226 

Possible total deaths of old cows, 1913-14 12, 519 

Percentage of possible deaths of old cows, 1913-1914 135 

Normal death rate of old cows 100 

Supposed percentage of excessive mortality, 1913-1914 : 035 

That pelagic sealing may have disturbed the death rate to the extent of 2H per 
cent is not an unreasonable assumption, and in the absence of any other sufficient 
explanation this may be accepted as the principal reason for the lack of a substantial 
increase of cows and pups in 1914. 

Comparison of the number of pups found on the various rookeries in the three 

successive censuses shows certain points of interest, but conclusions drawn from them 

. ^ 

a This is the rate due solely to old age, based on the knowledge that the average breeding life of the cow is about 10 years. 
Some mortality of adults from other causes shou 1 ! be added for absolute accuracy, but it can not be ascertained, and is doubt- 
less too small to affect a calculation of this kind. 



44 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



are subject to possible unknown factors involved in the operation of pelagic sealing. 
The comparison of counts is as follows: 

Number of pups and percentages of decrease or increase in 1913 and in 1914, as compared with 

the year before. 





1912 


1913 


1914 


Total 
pups. 


Total 
pups. 


Percent- 
age of 
decrease 
from 1912. 


Percent- 
age of 
increase 
over 1912. 


Total 
pups. 


Percent- 
age of 
decrease 
from 1913. 


Percent- 
age of 
increase 
over 1913. 


St Paul Island: 


i,975 
1.787 

6,435 

417 
13.014 
2,787 

521 
9.074 
7,364 
4,436 

186 
2.736 
1.0S3 

841 
2,400 
14,979 


1,855 

1,661 

6,368 

47S 

13,984 

3,495 

527 

10, 026 
7,953 
4,596 
197 
3,680 
1,320 
1,050 
2,812 

19,459 


6 
6.4 




2, 119 
1,834 
6,152 

656 
13.559 
4.052 

375 
9.934 
7.625 
4.919 

206 
3,555 
1,449 

927 

2,312 
19,709 




14.2 
10. 4 










1 

13-9 
7-4 

25.4 
1. 1 

10.4 
7-9 
3-6 
5-9 

34-7 

21.8 

24.8 
17. 1 
29.8 


3-4 






38.1 


Reef 




3 






15-7 






28.8 
•9 

4.1 


Tolstoi 
















7 
4-5 












3-3 






9-7 






n. 7 
17-7 












1. 2 


Total 







70, 035 


79,458 




13-4 


79.383 




•031 


St. George Island: 

North 






4,227 
3.607 
1,246 
26 
536 
2,307 


4,319 
3,778 
1,408 
25 
444 
2,837 




2- I 

4-7 
13 


5,301 
4.278 
I.023 
26 
581 
2,658 




22.7 
13-2 












27-3 


Little East 


3-8 
17. 1 


4 
30.8 


East Reef 






East Cliffs 


23- 9 


6.1 


Total 






11,949 


12,811 




7.2 


13,867 




7-4 


St. Paul Island 






70. 035 
11,949 


79.458 
12,811 




13-4 
7.2 


79,383 
13,867 




.031 
7-4 








Total, both islands 






81,984 


92, 269 




12.4 


93,250 




i. 06 









The increase in 191 3 was very general, 18 rookeries showing an increase and only 
4 a decrease. The increases on different rookeries ranged from 1 per cent to 34.7 per 
cent and the total increase was 12.4 per cent. In 1914 there were increases on 12 rook- 
eries and decreases on 10, with a total increase of only 1.06 per cent. The range of 
variation is greater than in the previous year, running from a decrease of 28.8 per cent to 
an increase of 38.1 per cent. Some rookeries which showed an increase in 191 3 show a 
decrease in 19 14 and vice versa. Kitovi, which decreased 6 per cent in 191 3, increased 
as much as 14.2 per cent in 1914 and nearly the same was true of Lukanin. Polovina, 
which showed the remarkable increase of 34.7 per cent in 191 3, has 3.3 per cent decrease 
in 1 914, while various other rookeries show similar irregularities. The most consistent 
large increase is that of Sivutch or Sea Iyion Rock, where there was a gain of 25.4 per 
cent in 1913 and 15.7 per cent in 1914. Ardiguen also increased well in both seasons, 
but its small size magnifies slight change as expressed in percentages. In the two 
years since 191 2 most of the rookeries show increase, but Gorbatch, Lagoon, and Morjovi 
on St. Paul Island, and Zapadni on St. George had fewer pups in 1914 than in 1912. 

On the whole, the comparison of the counts on the various rookeries shows nothing 
more clearly than that great irregularity prevailed. There is nothing to indicate that 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 45 

increases took place on rookeries of any particular type more than another nor that 

decreases were due to any general cause unless it were excessive mortality of old cows 

produced by pelagic sealing. A point of possible significance is seen in the fact that the 

increases or decreases in cows on a given rookery have no definite relation to the number 

of bulls. In a number of instances a decrease in cows was shown on rookeries which 

had an increased number of bulls. Thus, Tolstoi had 120 harem bulls in 1913 and 161 

in 1914. The 120 bulls of 1913 had the management of 10,026 cows, whereas the 161 

bulls of 1914 had only 9,934 cows, from which it is evident that the number of cows on 

a given rookery is not wholly dependent upon the number of bulls that are there to 

receive them. 

THE CENSUS IN THE FUTURE. 

The great element of uncertainty in all censuses thus far made is our imperfect 
knowledge of the percentage of young seals that naturally survive to the age of three 
years. Such information as we now have regarding this important matter is derived 
from data obtained largely in the days of pelagic sealing when unnatural conditions 
prevailed, making wholly reliable conclusions impossible. Under proper authority 
this percentage of survival can be so definitely ascertained in 191 5 that the full strength 
of the herd may be estimated with a degree of accuracy sufficient for all practical pur- 
poses. With this knowledge in hand, differences of opinion as to the actual size of 
the herd should be reduced to a negligible minimum. 

Until every possible influence of past sealing on both land and sea has disappeared 
and until all uncertainty is relieved regarding rates of increase and numerical propor- 
tions, it will be advisable to make an annual census. That this time has not yet arrived 
is evident from the results gained in 1914, particularly the count of pups. The more 
regularly and carefully censuses are made now while the herd is still relatively small the 
less necessity there will be for such work in the future when the size of the herd will 
render the task more difficult and more expensive. Another census, therefore, will be 
required for 191 5 and probably another for 1916. For later years, partial counts may 
suffice and perhaps the counting of pups may be discontinued. 

As the herd grows counts will be made with increasing labor and expense, but 
although all future conditions can not be predicted, it is probable that the difficulties 
of counting harems and pups will never be quite insuperable. To continue the harem 
counts when the herd has reached large proportions will require improved facilities 
not now available, and to make pup counts at that time will involve the employment 
of a corps of capable men, but if necessary the work can be done. 

THE BREEDING OR HAREM BULLS. 

STRENGTH AND VIGOR. 

The 1,559 harem bulls of 1914 showed every indication of full strength and vigor. 
So far as outward appearance and actions are concerned, they were normal animals in 
good condition as were all other classes of seals. The strain which they undergo without 
food during some six weeks of almost constant physical exertion and sustained sexual 
excitement is scarcely paralleled among animals. It is such that any weakness would 
be likely to manifest itself at once, and when no such weakness can be detected it must 
be concluded that none exists. 



46 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The increased number of bulls, while having some effect on the average size of the 
harems, did not preclude the formation and successful management of some excep- 
tionally large harems, and it is evident that an unlimited increment of bulls would not 
do so. Harems of large size were noted under various conditions, on large rookeries 
as well as smaller ones, and where idle bulls were present as well as where there were 
none. The bulls holding such harems, while magnificent animals, possibly superior 
to the average, were in no respect superior to many others in nearby positions having 
harems of moderate size. Harems of at least 80 cows were observed in numbers, in 
fact on practically every rookery. The largest . single harem was noted on Zapadni 
rookery on St. George Island. This harem on July 13 contained 106 cows, and there 
was no doubt this was not the full total. At the close of the season the bull in charge 
of it was much reduced in weight, but still jealously guarded a few cows not yet served 
and proved so vigorous and belligerent that he could not be dislodged from his posi- 
tion during the counting of pups. That this bull served more than 100 cows and fin- 
ished the season in relatively good condition is scarcely open to question. A similar 
case was noted on Gorbatch. The first harem formed here contained 6 cows on June 
22 and 22 on June 26, and rapidly increased to not less than 80 on June 30. A few 
cows had already gone out to feed, so the total number of cows belonging to this harem 
was doubtless nearly 100 even at this early date. Later in the season it grew still 
larger, but became so merged with surrounding harems that an exact count of cows 
was not possible. That it was successfully conducted is evident from the fact that the 
bull in charge of it was observed covering one of the few remaining cows on July 23. At 
this date a few bulls from other localities had concluded their labors and were sleeping in 
the grass behind the rookeries. These instances are sufficient evidence of the sexual 
capacity of the bulls. In addition, and corroborative of observations of former inves- 
tigators, a single bull was noted to copulate twice within an hour and three times wittr.n 
24 hours. 

Further and even more conclusive evidence of the sexual capacity of the bulL is 
found in the average size of the harems. The 93,250 pups of 1914 were sired by the 
1,403 harem bulls, the 105 idle bulls, and perhaps to a limited extent by the half bulls 
of 1913. Assuming that the number sired by half bulls is at least offset by the cows 
which died during the winter, it may be concluded that 1,508 harem bulls and idle bulls 
in 1913 sired the 93,250 pups born in 1914, or an average of 61.8 for each bull. The 
question of average harems is discussed more fully elsewhere (p. 56), but when it is 
considered that numerous single-cow harems are always present it is plain that many 
bulls must have impregnated more cows than the average. It is safe to say, therefore, 
that a normal bull is capable of serving 75 to 100 cows in a single season. 

SENILE BULLS. 

Only two cases of undoubted senility were observed. One of these bulls, when first 
noted on North Rookery, St. George Island, was in possession of two cows near the 
edge of the water and some distance from the main part of the rookery. He was relatively 
thin, lacking in vigor, and plainly very advanced in years. He retreated on our approach 
like an inexperienced "quitter," and his general cowed demeanor, as well as his poor 
physical condition, indicated that he would not be able to maintain his position. A few 
hours later he was found dispossessed and dejectedly eyeing a small 5-year-old half bull 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 47 

that was actively guarding the two cows. The following day he had disappeared. The 
second bull of this kind, showing similar characteristics, was observed on Sea Lion Rock 
July 20. Among the active harem bulls a certain proportion can be distinguished as" 
relatively old, but all maintain themselves with vigor, and it is apparent that, with rare 
exceptions like the ones noted above, practically all bulls with strength enough to return 
to the islands are still competent for harem service. 

ADOLESCENT HAREM BULLS. 

Many bulls not over 6 years old and a few not over 5 years conducted harems in 
the season of 1914. The 6-year-olds could not always be distinguished with certainty, 
but it was evident that practically the entire stock of this class of seals was divided 
between harem bulls and idle bulls. Five-year-olds with harems were comparatively 
few on St. Paul Island, but on St. George Island at least three were noted on East Cliffs 
and two on North Rookery as early as July 13. There are some observations to indicate 
that even 4-year-olds may be sexually capable and there is little doubt that all 5-year- 
olds are. But for such animals to do harem service is scarcely desirable. Under normal 
conditions 5-year-old half bulls could not obtain cows until the end of the season and the 
break up of the harems. Their participation in the harem system early in the season 
can hardly be regarded as anything but an indication of a scarcity of old bulls. This, 
however, is not proof that the old bulls had more cows than they were capable of serving 
for there were old bulls with comparatively small harems not far from harems held by 
the young bulls. The varying character of the breeding grounds makes it impossible for 
a bull to move far from his original position without losing whatever advantage he may 
have, so cows that for any reason haul beyond the working range of the established 
harem bulls are subject to capture by any unoccupied bulls. Under natural conditions 
such cows would immediately be appropriated by the idle bulls. In the absence of 
idle bulls, it is evident they fall to the lot of the 5-year-olds, and so far as known are 
effectively served by them. 

Thus, whether or not it will affect the number of pups to be born, there was in 1914 
a shortage of old bulls sufficient to permit a limited number of 5-year old half bulls to 
serve as harem masters. 

FIGHTING OF OLD BULLS. 

The conditions in 1914 were such as to favor a minimum of fighting. Practically all 
the old bulls were able to obtain at least small harems, and the idle bulls were not numer- 
ous. Moreover, the idle bulls were mostly only 6 years of age and, although fairly large 
and strong, lacked confidence and experience, so they were rather easily intimidated by 
the older animals. Early in the season before the cows arrived there was some fighting, 
which did comparatively little harm and which was doubtless not proportionately greater 
than it would be under any circumstances. On June 22 a bull was noted on Kitovi 
that had recently suffered the loss of one eye, and others with cuts and slashes were 
occasionally seen. Later, on the same rookery, an idle bull was seen to take charge of a 
harem while the original possessor sought to retrieve a fleeing cow, and in the onslaught 
which followed the interloper narrowly escaped castration. 

Contrary to general popular impression, no fighting of consequence occurs over 
the incoming cows. The bull fights to maintain his position and only in this indirect 

■ 84512°— S. Doc. 9S0, 63-3 4 



48 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

way can he be said to fight for the acquisition of cows at the time when they are 
arriving. Idle bulls are constantly to be seen wholly indifferent to the arrival of cows 
in near-by harems. Bulls in possession of harems not uncommonly attempt to wel- 
come new cows, but in such cases the cows are very apt to return to the sea in apparent 
fright. In many cases, cows were observed to come quietly into a harem while its lord 
and master was lying asleep and blissfully ignorant of any addition to his seraglio. 
During the formation of the harems, the dominant instinct of every bull is not to dis- 
possess his neighbor but to maintain his own position at all costs ; and a relatively poor 
place is valued as highly as the more favored ones. When the height of the season 
arrives, with practically all cows accounted for and many of them in heat at the same 
time, the procreative instinct becomes stronger and bulls which find themselves with- 
out cows will then attempt to secure them wherever possible. It is evident that the 
majority of the bulls return each season to the same or approximately the same position 
as that occupied the previous year. In general, it is true also that the older bulls arrive 
early. Thus it follows that the less advantageous positions are left for the younger 
bulls. Such bulls about the rear and ends of the rookeries are constantly being menaced 
by the harem bulls, whether actual fighting takes place or not, and this always causes 
commotion. When an idle bull makes a move which is deliberately or apparently 
threatening, the nearest harem bull starts toward him, perhaps from the other side of 
his harem, and plows ruthlessly through passive cows and over struggling pups until 
he is near enough to cause the idle bull to retire. In the majority of cases there is no 
real conflict, but since neighboring harem bulls are apt to start up at the same time, 
the general melee may result in two bulls coming into such close proximity that the 
"bluffing" tactics are abandoned and real blows struck. Similar trouble ensues from 
the approach of idle bulls and bachelors at the water's edge. The large number of 3 
and 4 year old bachelors in 1914 was the source of considerable disorder of this kind, 
and it is evident that even a moderate breeding reserve of these classes of males would 
be sufficient to haunt all the rookery fronts, and rouse the antagonism of the harem bulls. 
Time after time a harem bull will rush through his cows merely to roar and puff at a 
young bachelor which has hauled partly out of the water and looked with apparent 
curiosity in his direction. 

Even with fighting at a minimum, as at present, there is considerable unavoidable 
commotion on the rookeries. A particularly fruitful source is the departure of the 
cows to feed. When the first cows begin to go out, the harems are large, the cows closely 
packed, and births and copulations in progress. The bulls seem to become greatly 
exercised at the idea that a cow may get away without service and as soon as one makes 
a move, whether from a real intent to go to sea or not, the bull hastily rushes over 
any intervening cows and either quiets the restless one or in some way satisfies himself 
that she has been served. Sometimes the bull will even interrupt the service of one 
cow to restrain another which seems about to leave, and will do so likewise to threaten 
an inquisitive young bachelor. Such actions while the pups are still young and while 
births are underway doubtless cause some mortality of pups. One wonders that it 
does not cause much more than is found upon investigation, but it is evident from this 
as well as from general observation that the pups are fitted to withstand an incredible 
amount of rough treatment. Except at the time of birth and for a few hours there- 
after they may be battered about, trampled, and pushed into crevices without serious 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 49 

injury so far as the great majority of cases are concerned. Although the bulls some- 
times seemed conscious of the helpless young ones and appeared to avoid trampling 
them, innumerable instances were noted in which they passed directly over small pups 
without harming them. In one case a copulation was observed during which a pup 
was imprisoned beneath a bull and subjected to continued mauling for nearly 15 
minutes, after which the little fellow wriggled out apparently none the worse. It is 
plain, therefore, that considerable commotion is unavoidably connected with the harem 
system whether idle bulls are present or not; and although much of it is comparatively 
harmless, some fatalities are bound to result under the best of circumstances. 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INCREASE OF HAREM BULLS. 

The increase of harem bulls from 1,358 in 1912 to 1,403 in 1913 and again to 1,559 
in 1 91 4 shows clearly that the reduced state of male life in 191 2 and preceding years 
was at most only partly due to the killing of males on land. As stated elsewhere, the 
accessions of harem bulls in 1914 consisted of animals that escaped the undiminished 
land killings of 1910 and 191 1 when they were 2 and 3 years old, respectively. Their 
continued survival in larger numbers than formerly is thus due to the fact that their 
later years were free from the effect of pelagic sealing. To some extent this justifies 
the belief frequently expressed that with the closest land killing possible a certain 
number of males would always escape and come to maturity. It can not be said, how- 
ever, that it justifies land killing now at the former rate, for with pelagic sealing stopped, 
the increase in the number of cows would be proportionately larger than formerly. 

The increase in harems in 191 4 without a corresponding increase in cows shows that 
the number of harem bulls in immediately preceding years, if not insufficient, was at 
least abnormally small. That the bulls are fully capable of meeting such emergencies 
may not be doubted, but it is nevertheless clear that when more bulls are present the 
average number of cows per bull is immediately reduced. The number of cows in 191 3 
was almost equal to the number in 1914, but in 1913 they were divided among 1,403 bulls 
and in 1914 among 1,559 bulls. It is evident, therefore, that had 1,559 bulls been pres- 
ent in 1913, all or practically all of them would have been able to obtain harems. It 
is apparent also that a continued increase of bulls will cause the size of the average harem 
to decline from year to year until it reaches a minimum beyond which no increment of 
bulls can reduce it. 

THE IDEAL PROPORTION OF HAREM BULLS. 

It may well be doubted whether it would be wise to permit such an increase of bulls 
as would insure a minimum average harem, for other considerations are involved; but 
a safe course of procedure in the management of the herd would seem to demand that 
the average number of cows per bull be kept as near such a minimum as possible without 
causing injury to the herd. Such a course may be modified as more complete knowledge 
is obtained in future years, but at present a prudent policy of approximating natural 
conditions recommends itself. 

To accomplish a reduction of the average harem to the proportions of former years 
will require the preservation of a relatively small number of males and large numbers 
may still be killed without the slightest apprehension. This is evident when it is con- 
sidered that an annual increment of only 2,000 bulls would provide for the maintenance 



50 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

of 12,000 bulls in service, and if these had an average of only 40 cows each provision 
would be made for a total of 480,000 cows, a number scarcely exceeded in the history of 
the herd. 

The average number of cows per bull under approximately natural conditions can 
not be stated exactly, but the best evidence available indicates that it was not less than 
30 nor more than 40. In the early days of American ownership it was not known that 
all the cows are not on land at one time, so underestimates were the rule. H. W. Elliott, 
writing of conditions from 1 872 to 1 874, says : a 

I found it an exceedingly difficult matter to satisfy myself as to a fair general average number of cows 
to each bull on the rookery; but, after protracted study, I think it will be nearly correct when I assign 
to each male a general ratio of from 15 to 20 females at the stations nearest the water, and for those back 
in order from that line to the rear, from 5 to 12 ; but there are so many exceptional cases, so many instances 
where 45 and 50 females are all under the charge of 1 male, and then, again, where there are 2 or 3 females 
only, that this question was and is not entirely satisfactory in its settlement to my mind. 

Charles Bryant, writing of the same period, says simply, ' ' In the average there are 
about 15 females to one beach master." 6 

More detailed data are available for the years 1896 and 1897, during which the herd 
was considerably reduced in size, but was supplied with an excessive number of bulls, 
due to the suspension of killing during the modus vivendi of 1891 to 1893. In 1897, 
when fairly complete counts were made, there were 4,418 harems by count and 172,288 
cows by corrected estimate/ making an average harem of 38.9. At this time idle bulls 
were practically equal to harem bulls, and obviously excessive in number, so it is evident 
the average harem was reduced to a low figure. In view of these facts, and the knowledge 
that the extreme capacity of the bulls is very much greater, it is safe to say that a supply 
of harem bulls which provides 1 to every 40 cows is amply sufficient. The number in 
1914 was approximately 1 to every 60 cows, and close observation revealed no evidence 
that all were not efficient. To have produced an average harem of 40 in 1914 would 
have required only 772 more harems than were found, so it is apparent that no large 
reserves are necessary to bring about ideal conditions in the immediate future. If it 
should be found in practice that the average harem can not be greatly reduced without 
the accompaniment of a great excess of idle bulls, action will necessarily be governed 
according to circumstances as they develop; but if an intelligent and continued effort 
is made to provide harem bulls in the approximate proportion of 1 to 40 cows the result 
is certain to fulfill all the demands of a policy of conservation. 

IDLE AND YOUNG BULLS. 

AGE AND CHARACTER. 

The so-called idle bulls were in the majority of cases bulls believed to be only 6 
years of age. A few 7-year-olds also were unable to obtain harems, but only in 
exceptional circumstances. It is evident that in a well-balanced herd the idle bulls 
would largely consist of animals relatively young. During a great excess of bulls a 
variable number of all ages might be found in the class of idle bulls, but the natural course 

a Monogr. Seal Islands of Alaska, p. 36, 1882. 
t> In Allen, N. Am. Pinnipeds, p. 38s, 1880. 

c Obtained by multiplying the average harem of one rookery by the total number of harems and adding one-half for error in 
method. See this report, p. 34, and Jordan and Clark, Fur-Seal Invest., 1896-97, vol. I, p. 97, 1898. 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate VII. 



C l'H 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 51 

of events brings the younger animals to the less advantageous positions. The older 
bulls as a class are doubtless stronger and better fighters than their juniors, but their 
success in all cases may not be due to this so much as to their early arrival and their" 
predilection for places previously occupied. The young bull seeking his first harem is 
guided mainly by an instinct to secure some sort of a position on the breeding ground 
and wait for cows to come to him. Arriving a little late, he finds most of the good 
positions occupied, and unless he stumbles into a place vacant through the death of its 
previous occupant, he is content to take a relatively poor position and guard it as hope- 
fully as if it were the best. Late in the season he discovers his error and attempts to get 
cows wherever he can find them. The old bull, on the other hand, comes early and seeks 
the place occupied the previous year or a similar one and is not satisfied with any other. 
This, with the exception of circumstances, is the general procedure which operates to 
make the idle bulls as a class relatively young. 

Certain of the idle bulls are as tenacious of their positions as the harem bulls are 
and will charge at a man who comes near them with just as much ferocity and determina- 
tion; others will roar at a man and grudgingly give ground as he approaches, perhaps 
finally retreating to the water and sitting partly submerged while they continue to 
puff and glower; still others take fright at sight of a man and rush pell-mell to the sea 
and swim off. Especially to this last class the term "quitter" has been applied and an 
attempt has sometimes been made to distinguish "quitters" and idle bulls. As observed 
in 1 914, there was every gradation from the undoubted "quitter" to the determined 
idle bull, and a large number were neither .the one nor the other. Moreover, some of the 
most timid quitters were found continually returning to their positions and in some 
cases their demeanor changed as the season advanced, while a few of them actually 
obtained harems. It was evident that all such bulls were ready to secure harems and 
competent to care for them whenever opportunity permitted. Their enumeration as 
idle bulls, therefore, was fully justified. 

Other bulls, apparently at least 6 years of age, were irregular in their movements, some 
being on the hauling grounds, some in the bachelor runways and at the extreme ends of 
the rookeries, while at all times an indeterminate number were in the water, appearing 
and reappearing along the rookery fronts to haunt and harass the harem masters nearest 
the sea. Such bulls can not be fully enumerated and, though doubtless quite as effective 
reserves as the idle bulls in fixed positions, they can only be taken into account collect- 
ively with the "young bulls" or half-bulls, all of which are never on land at one time. 
With these exceptions, the "young bulls" consist of the 5-year-olds, the majority of 
which spend the early part of the season with the young bachelors. Toward the height 
of the season they are seen in increasing numbers about the rookery fronts, and at the 
first sign of relaxation of harem discipline they swarm over the breeding area. As the 
exodus of old bulls progresses the idle bulls and the smaller half-bulls practically take 
possession of the breeding ground. At this time the virgin cows appear in greatest 
numbers and it is assumed that they are largely served by these idle and young bulls. 
The young bulls, half-bulls, or 5-year-olds, are wholly unable to cope with the idle 
bulls, and, although in 1914 they occupied most of the space after the break-up, it is 
plain that they would not have been permitted to do so had a larger number of idle 
bulls been present. 



52 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
IRREGULAR DISTRIBUTION. 



As in the case of other classes of seals, the presence of a larger or a smaller number 
of idle bulls on a given rookery is doubtless governed by a variety of circumstances, only 
a few of which can be recognized. At least it is obvious that the distribution of idle 
bulls is very irregular, and a considerable number may be present about one rookery 
while scarcely any are found on another. It may be possible also, as observed in 1914, 
for idle bulls to be present at one end of a rookery while harems are held by half -bulls at 
the other end. The fact that the herd as a whole includes a number of idle bulls, there- 
fore, is not inconsistent with their complete absence and an actual shortage of harem 
bulls on certain rookeries. This being the case, it can not be safely assumed that no 
shortage of harem bulls exists unless there be idle bulls on every rookery. To this extent 
at least it is apparent that a certain number of idle bulls are desirable and necessary. 

In 1914 there were several rookeries having no idle bulls whatever and the range of 
variation from rookery to rookery was very great, as shown by the subjoined table: 

Percentage of idle bulls on different rookeries, 1(114. 



Rookery and island. 



St. Paul Island: 

Kitovi 

Lukanin 

Gorbatch 

Ardiguen 

Reef 

Sivutch 

Lagoon 

Tolstoi 

Zapadni 

Little Zapadni 

Zapadni Reef 

Polovina 

Polovina Cliffs 

Little Polovina 

Morjovi 

Vostochni 

Total, St. Paul Island . . 

St. George Island: 

North 

Staraya Artel 

Zapadni 

Little East 

East Reef 

East Cliffs 

Total, St. George Island . 

St. Paul Island 

St. George Island 

Total, both islands 







Percentage 


Harems. 


Idle bulls. 


of idle 
bulls. 


58 


. 5 


8.6 


39 


1 


2.6 


112 


9 


8 


IS 








193 


26 


13. 5 


91 


10 


10. 9 


8 


2 


2S 


161 


38 


23-6 


114 


24 


21 


90 


10 


11. 1 


3 


I 


33-3 


58 


3 


5-1 


22 


6 


27. 2 


18 








43 


4 


9-3 


291 


20 


6.8 


1,316 


159 


12 


94 


4 


4. 2 


63 


4 


6-3 


14 





O 


1 





O 


14 


3 


21.4 


57 


2 


3-5 


243 


13 


5-3 


1,316 


IS9 


12 


243 


13 


5-3 


1.559 


172 


11 



IDLE BULLS AS A DESIRABLE BREEDING ELEMENT. 

The idea that the idle bull is literally a surplus or superfluous bull, only valuable as 
a reserve or as an indication of a sufficiency of harem bulls, seems open to serious doubt. 
It is quite conceivable that a moderate number of idle bulls may be an actual necessity 
for normal breeding. When a sufficient number of idle bulls are present, it is apparent 
that they are the principal, if not practically the only, agents for the service of the virgin 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 53 

cows. In the absence of idle bulls, these cows must be served either by the old bulls or 
by the 5-year-old half-bulls. It can not be said that any such cows ever have escaped 
service, but it is plain that an absence of idle bulls would be the first condition favoring 
its possibility. A number of idle bulls proportionate to the number of virgin cows, there- 
fore, would be the safest guaranty that all such cows would be impregnated. 

The virgin cows do not appear on the rookeries until relatively late in the season and 
remain on land but a short time. Apparently they come in greatest numbers at about 
the time the regular harems are breaking up and the old bulls retiring from the breeding 
areas. Although some of them are doubtless served by the old bulls, this is exceptional, 
for the majority of the old bulls leave each season at approximately the same time 
whether idle bulls are present or not. This leaves the young half-bulls free to take pos- 
session of the young cows unless prevented by the idle bulls. In 19 14, the idle bulls were 
sufficiently numerous to secure many of these cows, but a much greater number were 
seen under the care of the half-bulls. So far as known, the half-bulls are sexually as 
potent as the older animals, but since they would not do service under natural conditions, 
some doubt attaches to the advisability of an artificial condition which permits them to 
act as sires. It may therefore be concluded that idle bulls as a class have a definite func- 
tion in the breeding economy and that unless in excessive numbers they are a benefit to 

the herd. 

IDLE BULLS AS A MENACE TO THE HERD. 

In recent years there has been no opportunity to observe the effect of numerous 
idle bulls, but there can be no doubt that a large supply of idle males, including animals 
of 7 years of age and over, would cause increased fighting and disturbance. The extent 
to which this would entail increased loss of life is to a considerable degree a matter of 
opinion. If left to itself, the herd would undoubtedly develop an excess of bulls beyond 
all possible needs and one which might serve as a distinct disadvantage. It may readily 
be believed that superabundant male life was a factor in maintaining an equilibrium 
before the advent of man, but in spite of this a considerable proportion of idle bulls 
may not be seriously detrimental. Under present conditions the massed sections of 
the larger rookeries are at the height of the season as thickly packed with seals as seems 
possible. The harems merge one with another to such an extent that those toward 
the center of a given area are thoroughly shielded from any disturbances except those 
originating within themselves. On the flat and adjoining beach under Hutchinson 
Hill there were in 191 4 more than 100 contiguous liarems and 6,000 to 8,000 closely 
packed cows. Numerous idle bulls, if present in such a place, would have caused some 
extra commotion around the outskirts of this breeding ground, but the great central 
mass would have been practically unaffected. In a large herd a few bulls and a certain 
number of cows undoubtedly come to death through fighting, and a considerable num- 
ber of pups are trampled and smothered, but there is no conclusive evidence that the 
number is appreciably more than proportionate to the size of the herd, regardless of 
a considerable number of idle bulls. In 1896, when idle bulls were present in great 
numbers, 131 dead cows and 28 dead bulls were noted, and a full count of pups was 
made on at least one rookery, Kitovi. So far as these figures can be compared with 
those of recent years, when both harem bulls and idle bulls have been at a minimum, 



54 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



no important change in the death rate is indicated. This is shown by the following 
table : 

Mortality in relation to idle bulls. 



Year. 


1896 


1912 


1913 


1914 




4,932 

03,000 

7)932 

& 209, 873 

131 

1-7 

.079 
28 

■380 

6,049 

c 109 

1.8 


1,358 

113 

i,47i 

81,984 

27 

1-7 

•°37 
3 

.204 

1,975 

37 

1.8 


I>4t>3 

IOS 

1,508 

92, 269 

3° 

1.9 

.032 
6 

■ 390 

1,855 
22 
1. i 


1,559 

172 

1,731 

93,250 

18 

1. 

.019 

1 

• 057 

2,119 

47 

2. 2 


Idle bulls 


Total bulls 






Per cent of dead cows in relation to total num. 


Per cent of dead cows in relation to total num- 




Per cent of dead bulls in relation to total num- 











<* Estimated; see Rept. Fur-Seal Investigations, 1896-97, vol. 1, p. 98. 

& One-half more than formerly estimated. 

c Including only those which died prior to August 10 to make the figures comparable with those of later years. 

The above table is somewhat unsatisfactory, since pelagic sealing was going on in 
1896 and the counts were made then by methods not exactly the same as those used 
in 1912-1914. Moreover, it is not possible to state what percentage of the dead was due 
to trampling and fighting, so it is necessary to compare those dead from all causes. 
Notwithstanding that the figures are less extensive than desirable, several points of 
considerable interest are to be noted. The percentage of dead cows in relation to the 
total number of cows was greater in 1896 than in the years when idle bulls were few. 
In all other respects there is nothing in the figures to indicate that the percentage of 
death from all causes during the breeding season was any greater in 1896 than in the 
later years. The percentage of dead pups on Kitovi was exactly the same in 1896 as 
in 1 91 2, and even less than in 19 14. Likewise the percentage of dead cows in relation 
to the total number of bulls was the same in 1896 as in 191 2 and less than in 191 3. 
In 1914, with an increase of bulls, there were fewer deaths of bulls and cows than in 
1912 and 1913. 

The imperfection of the data precludes absolute proof, but so far as any conclusion 
is indicated by these figures it is that a considerable number of idle bulls does not pro- 
duce an excessive death rate. If, in spite of these figures, it is held that an increased 
mortality must necessarily follow even a moderate increase of idle bulls, the most that 
can be maintained is that it is likely to be relatively small and not of itself sufficient 
to justify apprehension. Fighting and commotion must always be a part of rookery 
life, and if the idle bulls have any legitimate function it need not be very great to 
offset the harm they may do and justify their preservation in reasonable numbers. 

THE IDEAL PROPORTION OF IDLE BULLS. 

What has been said in the preceding paragraphs indicates that while a gieat excess 
of idle bulls is highly undesirable, an entire lack of them is equally so and for the mainte- 
nance of a well-balanced herd a definite proportion of them is necessary. This propor- 
tion should be large enough to insure the distribution of idle bulls on all the rookeries in 
numbers sufficient to serve all the virgin cows. The number of virgin cows at a given 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate VIII. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



55 



time would normally be about one-fifth as many as the number of old cows. This 
would indicate that one idle bull to every five harem bulls would not be an excessive 
number. Although but little data are available, it seems probable that most of the virgin 
cows are served between July 15 and August 5, a period somewhat shorter than that 
during which the old cows are held in the harems. Therefore, it may not be unfair to 
allow a smaller number to each bull than in the case of the old cows, and one idle bull 
to every four harem bulls therefore may be suggested as a theoretically ideal proportion. 
Reference to the table (p. 52) of the distribution of idle bulls in 1914 shows that this 
proportion has nearly or quite been reached on some rookeries without effectively re- 
ducing the average size of the harems of the old bulls so it is evident that in practice it 
may not be possible to secure ideal proportions either of idle bulls or harem bulls. How- 
ever this may be, there can be no question of the importance of striving to maintain 
proportions as near a theoretical ideal as circumstances will permit. 

THE UTILIZATION OF SURPLUS BULLS. 

To prevent financial loss, business principles demand that no large increment of 
idle bulls be permitted, but it is inevitable that excess may occur from time to time 
either as the result of well meaning restrictive legislation or on account of the liberal 
allowances for contingencies necessary in a carefully considered system of reserving 
young males. It is true that after the fourth year the pelt of the male fur seal becomes 
coarser and of less value than formerly, but it can not be said that it loses all its value. 
During the early years of the leasing system all furs were much cheaper than at present 
and the great abundance of seals made it natural that only the choicest should be taken 
for market. In later years, when the Government restricted the quota, the lessees were 
of course inclined to follow a similar policy guaranteeing them the largest possible profit. 
Therefore it is probable that they fostered the belief that skins of "wigged" males were 
of no value. The pelagic sealers, however, took seals of all classes and the records of 
sales in London show that "wigs" were by no means without value. Although their 
condition as pelagic skins was variable and doubtless below what might be expected of 
land-taken skins, they were often sold for good prices in lots including other grades. 
The best examples of lots consisting exclusively or almost exclusively of wigs in recent 
years are found on the sales sheet of C. M. Lampson & Co. for 1909 and 191 1, as follows: 

Prices received for skins of large seals. 



Lot number. 



Classification. 



Average price. 



Sale of Dec. 17, 1909 
16S 

175 

338 

Sale of Dec. 15, 1911 
190 

25° 

268 



(31 wigs 

Is wigs (cut) 

/16 wigs 

U wigs (cut) 

fio wigs, pt. cut, etc 
\i middling 

(20 wigs 

\6 wigs (cut) 

/12 wigs 

\3 middlings 

(32 wigs 

(14 wigs (cut) 



Shillings. 
no ($26. 76) 

10S ($26. 28) 

S6 (S20. 92) 

. 66 (S16. 06) 
52 (S12. 65) 
44 ($10. 70) 



56 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The average price received for land-taken skins in 1909 was $34.68, so in general 
terms it may be said that wigs in that year brought at least two-thirds as much as 
2 and 3 year olds. In view of these figures, it is obvious that prime skins of 5 and 6 
year old fur seals would always command a price that would compensate for a con- 
siderable proportion of the revenue which might have accrued if they had been taken 
as 3-year-olds. Even if no figures were available, it would still be evident that the 
skins of young bulls must have a substantial value. The observer, seeing these fine 
young animals in prime condition, and knowing the growing demand for fur of all kinds 
and the wide range of uses to which it may be put, can not fail to conclude that the skins 
of young bulls would find a ready market and bring profitable prices. Therefore, while 
failure to kill at the proper time causes a financial loss, it does not cause a total loss. 
In emergencies, such as will exist in 19 15 when nearly 10,000 5 -year-olds will be 
present, it would be possible to derive at least a moderate revenue from seals of this class. 

THE AVERAGE HAREM. 
VALUE OF THE AVERAGE HAREM. 

The average harem, as commonly considered, is the average number of old cows 
held in harems by old bulls in a given season. It is calculated by dividing the total 
number of pups (equivalent to cows) by the total number of harems, and may be obtained 
for a single rookery or for the whole herd. During pelagic sealing, when full counts of 
pups were not feasible, the average harem was used as a means of estimating the total 
number of cows and pups by counting pups on one or several rookeries and applying 
the average thus obtained to all the rookeries. Estimates made in this way, as shown 
by recent full counts of pups, were apparently from 30 per cent to 40 per cent too small 
(see this report, p. 34), but their comparative value is nevertheless very great. For 
this reason it is highly important that this information be obtained whenever it is not 
possible to make a full count of pups. 

The average harem is of value also as an indication of the relative strength of the 

breeding males. Thus in 19 14 an increase in harem bulls without a proportionate 

increase in bearing cows caused a reduction of the size of the average harem. Further 

reduction may be expected with further increment of bulls and regulation of the size 

of the average harem may be accomplished by increasing or decreasing the number of 

bulls. 

VARIATION OF AVERAGE HAREMS. 

Variation of average harems is of two kinds, that of seasons, from one to another, 
and that of different rookeries in the same season. From season to season the average 
harem of the total herd has varied in recent years within relatively small limits. Thus 
in 1912 it was 60.4, in 1913 it rose to 65.8, and in 1914 dropped to 59.8. During the 
same period it showed a net decline for St. Paul Island and a continuous rise for St. 
George Island. Variation on the different rookeries from year to year keeps within 
moderate limits in most cases, and this may be taken as some indication that, unless 
unduly influenced, the same set of animals repairs each year to the same rookery. In 
other cases, the average harem shows sudden and pronounced ups or downs which are 
sometimes obviously due to well-known abnormal conditions and are sometimes wholly 
inexplicable. A summary of average harem data follows: 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 

Comparison of average harems, 1912-1914. 



57 



Rookery and island. 


1912 


1913 


1914 


Bulls. 


Cows. 


Average 
harems. 


Bulls. 


Cows. 


Average 
harems. 


Bulls. 


Cows. 


Average 
harems. 


St. Paul Island: 


53 

33 

109 

11 
179 

57 

8 
i°3 
105 
61 
3 
44 
21 
II 
37 
237 


1,975 
1,787 
6,435 

417 
13,014 
2,787 

521 
9,074 
7,304 
4.436 

186 
2,736 
1,083 

841 
2,400 
14,979 


37-3 

47 

59 

37-9 

72.7 

48.9 

65.1 

88.1 

70. 1 

72. 7 

62 

62.2 

51-6 

76.5 

64.9 

63. 2 


44 
33 

106 
II 

171 
67 
6 

120 

106 
58 
3 
44 
19 
21 
40 

293 


1.855 

1,661 

6,368 

475 

13, 984 

3,495 

527 

10,026 
7,953 
4,596 
197 
3,680 
1,320 
1,050 
2,812 

19.459 


42.2 
50.3 
60. 1 

43- 2 
81.8 
52. 2 
87.8 
80.4 

75 

79-2 

6s-7 

83.6 

69.4 

5° 

"0-3 

66.4 


58 
39 

112 
15 

193 
91 
8 

161 

114 
90 
3 
58 
22 
18 
43 

291 


2, 119 

1,834 

6,152 

656 

13,559 

4,052 

37S 

9.934 

7,625 

4.919 

206 

3,555 

r,449 

927 

2,312 

19.709 


36.5 

47 

54-9 

43-7 

70.3 

44-5 

46.9 

61. 7 

66.9 

54-7 

68.7 

61.3 

65.9 

51-5 

53-8 

67.7 








Reef 






Tolstoi 










Polovina Cliffs 








St. George Island: 

North 


i>°77 


70.035 


65 


1, 142 


79.458 


69.6 


1,316 


79,383 


60.3 


H7 
52 
32 
1 
23 
56 


4,227 
3.607 
1, 246 
26 
536 
2,307 


36.1 

69-4 

38.9 

26 

23-3 

41.2 


104 
59 
21 
2 
17 
58 


4,319 
3.778 
1,408 
25 
444 
2.S37 


41-5 

64 

67 

12.5 

26. I 

48.9 


94 
63 
14 
1 
14 
57 


5,301 
4.278 
1,023 
26 
581 
2,658 


56.4 

67-9 . 

73-1 

26 

41-5 

46.6 






Little East 


East Reef 


East Cliffs 


Total and average 

St. Paul, total and average 

St. George, total and average.. 

Grand total and average . 


281 


11,949 


42-5 


261 


12. 811 


49.1 


243 


13-867 


57-1 


1,077 

281 


70, 03s 
11,949 


65 
42-5 


1, 142 
261 


79.458 
12,811 


696 

49. 1 


1,316 
243 


79,383 
13.867 


60.3 
57-1 


1.358 


81, 984 


60.4 


1,403 


92, 269 


65.8 


r.559 


93, 250 


59-8 



The most obvious general condition revealed by this table is the marked difference 
between St. Paul and St. George Island. Although only four rookeries on St. Paul 
show an increased average harem since 191 2, the conditions on St. George are reversed 
and five out of the six show an increase. This accords with field observations which 
make it very clear that there was a scarcity of bulls on St. George in 1914. For the 
whole herd the average harem falls since 1912 on 12 rookeries, rises on 8 rookeries, and 
remains unchanged on 2. 

The variation in the averages of different rookeries in the season of 1914 ranged 
from 36.5 on Kitovi, St. Paul Island, to 73.1 on Zapadni, St. George Island. Nine 
rookeries have an average of over 60, 8 of under 50, and 5 between 50 and 60. Some of 
this variation is doubtless due to past conditions, especially raiding and pelagic sealing, 
but it is probable that conditions never have been and never will be such as to produce 
more than approximate uniformity in the average size of the harems on the different 
rookeries. 

THE AVERAGE HAREM AS A CRITERION OF THE CAPACITY OF THE BULLS. 

The nature of an average forbids its use as a criterion of extremes unless certain 
reservations are made. In some cases, an average may be the mean between only 
slightly divergent extremes, and thus is fairly representative; but the average harem 
is based upon the total number of harem bulls, including many with but one cow 

a Little East, with its single harem of 26, not considered. 



5§ BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

and others with more than a hundred. If the bulls are of equal strength, one is as 
capable of caring for a large harem as another, and it must be concluded that all bulls 
have the ability to serve the maximum number of cows. This maximum number is 
known to be more than ioo, and although an exact figure can not be stated it is not 
necessary for practical purposes that it should be. The average harem for the whole 
herd or for certain of the larger rookeries is of value in this connection chiefly because 
it substantiates the general conclusion that the maximum harem is very large. To 
obtain the average harem of 59.8 in 191 4, it is obvious that harems much larger than 
the average must have been included. The maximum average harem of some of the 
larger rookeries furnishes a further indication of the same sort. Thus, in 191 2 the 
average harem of Tolstoi, a rookery of 9,074 cows, was 88.1 ; in 1913 the average harem 
of Reef, with 13,984 cows, was 81.8; in 1914 Reef had 13,559 cows and an average 
harem of 70.3. Such figures can not possibly be interpreted otherwise than that the 
capacity of the bulls is far beyond their average opportunities even under present 
conditions. 

In addition to the bearing cows, which are the only ones included in the average 
harem, the harem bulls have the further responsibility of at least a small proportion of 
the virgin cows; exactly how many can not be ascertained. If a sufficient number of 
idle bulls were present to insure the exclusion of the half-bulls from the breeding, the 
total of harem and idle bulls might be proportioned to the total of young and old cows 
served by each bull. Under these conditions an average might be obtained by con- 
sidering the bulls of one year as sires of pups of the next, and to this extent the effective- 
ness of the bulls would be demonstrated wholly beyond cavil. Thus there were in 191 3, 
according to count, 1,403 harem bulls, 105 idle bulls, and 259 young bulls, making a 
total of 1,767 bulls and young bulls as the sires of the 93,250 pups born the following 
year, in 1914. The average number of cows per bull on this basis therefore was 52.8 in 
1913. Two objections may be made to this result, (1) the number of young bulls counted 
did not include the full stock of that class (see p. 40), and (2) at least 10 per centof the 
old cows must have died between seasons. One of these objections practically offsets 
the other, and it would be hypercritical to dissent from the conclusion that an average 
of not less than 50 young and old cows was served by the combined harem bulls, idle 
bulls, and young bulls in 1913. 

Considering all the data on the subject of average harems, it is evident that while 
they fail to show the maximum capacity of the bulls they demonstrate most conclusively 
that the maximum is very high and that in practice it has rarely or never been reached. 
If any bad result has come through the reduced number of bulls on the islands in recent 
years, it has not been because of lack of sexual power. Possible harm through lack of 
opportunity by the old bulls and through participation of adolescent males in the breeding 
has been discussed elsewhere (see p. 47). 

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE CLASSES OF SEALS. 

The so-called classes of seals are the natural divisions which may be made according 
to age and sex. For practical purposes there are seven classes of male seals and four classes 
of females. The classes of males are the pups, the yearlings, the 2-year-old bachelors, 
the 3-year-old bachelors, the 4-year-old bachelors, the 5 and 6 year olds or half-bulls, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 59 

and the bulls or males of 7 years and over. The classes of females are the pups, the 
yearlings, the virgin cows or 2-year olds, and the bearing cows or cows of 3 years and 
over. The distinction of these various classes is a matter of great importance in the~ 
study of the seals and in the practical management of the herd. It is especially important 
to distinguish the bachelors of 2, 3, and 4 years since these are the classes most similar 
in general appearance and the ones from which quotas and reserves must be taken. The 
other classes are mostly so easily distinguished as to require no special discussion. 

GENERAL DISTINCTIONS. 

Certain obvious general distinctions have long been recognized. Thus, the males 
after the third year are so much larger than any female that no confusion is possible. 
Males and females of 2 and 3 years, although distinguishable by a combination of minor 
characteristics which are apparent to the experienced observer, have a general similar- 
ity in size and color, but they are so completely segregated during the killing season 
prior to August 1 that no attempt at careful examination of individuals is necessary. 
The cows keep strictly to the breeding areas during the early part of the season and 
the bachelors to the hauling grounds with such rare exceptions that they need not be 
considered. Pups or yearlings of both sexes, so far as known, are identical in general 
appearance, but the males and females can be readily distinguished when handled. 
The skinner is always aware of the sex of any seal of any age the moment he takes it 
in hand to make the opening cuts. Cows or bulls of advanced age are easily distin- 
guished from those of the early years of maturity, but the exact age of a given indi- 
vidual can not be known except in a few cases, and it is of no practical importance that 
it should be. Pups in their first season are distinctly characterized by color, though, 
as noted elsewhere, they may become so fat at 3 months of age as to weigh quite as 
much or more than yearlings. Bachelors in the fifth year develop the "wig" or mane, 
which serves as a mark of recognition in addition to increased size. The bachelors of 
2,3, and 4 years, however, are very similar in all general respects, and can be distin- 
guished onlv bv size. 

- SPECIAL METHODS APPLIED IN 1914. 

Heretofore bachelors of certain average size have been regarded as 2-year-olds, 
those of the next size as 3-year-olds, and those of the next as 4- year-olds. Certain seals 
actually or apparently intermediate between the more or less vague standards have 
been classified as "long 2-year-olds," "short threes," or by similar terms. The actual 
age of any particular seal was never known with certainty, since no seals had been 
marked at birth and subsequently measured as they reached different ages. In 191 4 
it was possible for the first time to measure seals positively known to be 2-year-olds, 
since a number of that age were present bearing distinctive brands placed upon them as 
pups in 1912. With these 2 -year-olds as a standard of comparison it was possible to 
determine the characteristics of the 3-year-olds and the 4-year-olds. As a further and 
very important check upon the conclusions a large number of skulls were preserved, 
furnishing unmistakable evidence of the relative age of different individuals. Further- 
more, the standard of distinction adopted has been the one subject to the least variation, 
namely, the total length of the animal. It has long been recognized by zoologists and 
students of classification and variation that the total length measurement of mammals 
is the most constant and reliable one that can be taken. This dimension is not affected 



60 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

by any temporary condition of the animal causing it to be fat or lean, but is mainly 
dependent upon the length of the vertebral column, which varies only within very 
narrow limits. As shown beyond, especially under the discussion of 3-year-olds, the 
use of this measurement makes it possible to classify bachelor seals with a high degree 
of accuracy. 

THE YEARLINGS. 

Definition. — A yearling seal has been defined as an animal which has attained its 
second summer, or one which has completed its first migration. The great majority of 
the pups are born in July, but some are born as early as the middle of June and a very 
few as late as the middle of August. The seals of any one generation, therefore, can 
vary in actual age but little more than 8 weeks, and for all practical purposes this 
variation may be disregarded. Seals found on the islands the year following that of 
their birth are and in fact must in practice be regarded as yearlings during the whole 
of that year or from the time they arrive at the islands on the return from their first 
migration until they leave to begin their second journey. The same principle applies 
to the other classes of young seals, each simply representing one generation in the 
herd. It is true that a provision of the law of 1910, which fails to use the word year- 
ling, conditionally prohibits the killing of "any seal less than 1 year old." But this 
prohibition is expressly stated to be subject to the "authority of the Secretary of 
Commerce" and to the needs of the natives for food. Moreover, the subsequent law of 
1912 provides that male seals without restriction as to age may be killed as food for the 
natives. Therefore it is a matter of no practical importance whether the actual age of 
any given yearling be slightly more or slightly less than 1 2 months. 

It is, of course, impossible to determine the exact age of individual seals, but the 
limited period in which births take place affords a means of approximation. Births 
occur in greatest numbers from the 10th to the 20th of July. After that date they 
rapidly decrease, and although a few usually occur during the first week of August, 
they represent the merest fraction of the total number. Births as late as August 10 
are of very rare occurrence. Among the very few records of such cases which have 
been found, one on August 14 and another on August 27 may be noted. In 191 4 the 
latest copulation recorded was on August 2 1 , the cow engaged being an old one and her 
pup apparently but a few days old. It is evident, therefore, that yearling seals found 
in July may be slightly more or slightly less than 12 months of age, that those found 
early in August are mostly more than that age, while of those found after August 10 the 
chances are thousands to one that their age exceeds the exact year. 

Limited knowledge of yearlings. — During e£,rly observations of seals, it was natural 
to expect that the yearlings, having but little sexual instinct and being but poorly 
prepared to defend themselves in the rough-and-tumble of the hauling and breeding 
grounds, would have little reason or desire to come to land early in the season. It was 
also evident from the variation in the size of the pups in the fall and from the probable 
vicissitudes of the first migration that yearlings would be likely to present a wider varia- 
tion in size than seals of older classes. These conditions have been recognized by most 
students of fur seals in the past and with some corroborative observations of the year- 
lings themselves, it has generally been regarded as true that the yearlings come late to 

a Report Fur Seal Investigation, 1896-97, pt. 3, p. 43, 1899. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 6l 

the islands in no large numbers and associate with the pups rather than with the older seals. 
But exact information as to their size and characteristics has been very limited. It is 
probable that 2-year-olds, especially 2-year-old females, have been mistaken frequently 
for yearlings not only by the agents and other white men but by the natives, who 
have been regarded usually as expert in distinguishing the classes of seals. An incident 
early in the season of 1914 indicates that this may have been the case. During a killing 
on July 1, the chief of the natives, John Stepetin, in charge of the clubbers, was asked 
if any yearlings were likely to appear, and upon his replying in the affirmative he was 
requested to point them out. A few minutes later, a small pod of seals was driven up 
and the native chief announced that it contained one yearling. Through misunder- 
standing a motion made by the chief in pointing out this seal, one of the clubbers struck 
it a blow and killed it. Therefore it was carefully measured and its skull was preserved. 
Subsequent study and examination proved conclusively that it was a 2-year-old and not 
a yearling. It was, however, approximately as small as any seal in the drive or as any 
on the islands at that time or for several weeks later. Neither the agents nor the natives 
pay much attention to seals during the few weeks just following the killing season when 
the yearlings really appear, so it is not unlikely that they have sometimes assumed that 
the smallest seals present in June and July were yearlings. 

Knowledge of the movements of yearlings and of their size and weight has been 
based largely on assumptions which, however justified by observation and logical proba- 
bilities, have not been demonstrated beyond the possibility of doubt by definite experi- 
ment and exact record. 

Records of yearlings. — In conformity with the spirit of the law, no yearlings were 
killed in 1914, but records and notes made in 191 3 and not as yet published were found 
to include much valuable data. With the object of securing exact information in regard 
to yearlings, 5,529 pups were carefully branded in the fall of 1912 by direction of Special 
Investigator George A. Clark. In 191 3 Mr. Clark searched for examples of these branded 
animals to determine the yearling type, but up to the time of his departure from the 
islands (August 9) , he records the examination of only one, on July 24. Later in the 
season, the agents and school-teachers on both islands continued to search for branded 
yearlings and found them only in very small numbers. Since these branded animals 
were the only undoubted yearlings upon which observations ever were made, the notes 
of the agents and school-teachers in the fall of 1913 are highly important. Prior 
to the month of August, as shown by the field notes of G. A. Clark, only one clearly 
branded yearling had been seen, on July 24, and during the remainder of the season 
until November n only nine more were recorded. The very small number found led 
to the contention that many of the pups of 191 2 must have succumbed to the branding. 
Although this may have been a matter of uncertainty in 191 3, the large number of 
branded 2-year-olds which appeared in 1914 shows conclusively that it was not founded 
in fact. As indicating the thoroughness of the search for branded yearlings in 1913, 
the following notes of Mr. A. G. Whitney, school-teacher on St. Paul, are of interest: 

August 10. Spent an hour in the afternoon watching the seals at Kitovi from fox cairn at Rock 8. 
Many cows and pups hauled back to edge of grass, and a hundred or more bachelors on the knoll at 
Rock 10. A yearling, with a perfect T brand, playing with the pups and scampering about among 
the dozing cows. This yearling, scarcely larger than the huskiest pups, and although slenderer and 
more alert and agile, apparently no heavier than they. 



62 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 



August 16. Hatton reported three branded yearlings in the food drive made to-day. 

August 27. Went out to Gorbatch (Rock 14) just before dark to observe the mass of seals there. 
Noted a number of very small seals, undoubtedly yearlings, among the cows and pups at upper edge 
of herd. 

September 9. One branded yearling seen on Kitovi. 

October 13. After closing school, I spent an hour and a half with Hatton searching for branded 
yearlings on Gorbatch, Ardiguen, and Reef, without success. 

October 14. This being a school holiday, I spent all day hunting for branded yearlings. Hatton 
and two natives accompanied me. With glasses we thoroughly scanned every foot of rookery on Gor- 
batch, Ardiguen, Reef, Kitovi, Lukanin, and Tolstoi. Observed but one branded yearling (at Rock 2, 
Gorbatch), which we were unable to catch. 

October 17. After school, searched until dark for branded yearlings with Hatton and two natives 
on Gorbatch, Ardiguen, and Reef. The natives insisted that the yearlings are to be found among the 
bachelors, and never among the cows and pups. Although I knew better, we decided to cull over 
the bachelor herd (about 200) on Reef. A few possible yearlings were among them, but no brands. 
With our glasses we carefully worked over every bunch of seals along the rookery fronts. 

October 18. As it was Saturday, Hatton and I spent the whole afternoon looking for branded year- 
lings. Hunted over Gorbatch, Ardiguen, and Reef carefully. Found but one brand, at Rock 2, 
Gorbatch, the same place where the one was seen October 14. 

October 19. Spent half a day with a native searching for branded yearlings on Gorbatch, Ardiguen, 
and Reef, and then Kitovi and Lukanin. Found but one, at Lukanin, which we tried to snare, but 
he got away from us. This one was hauled up among a mass of cows and pups, and frisking about, as 
usual. 

October 24. Spent the late afternoon on Reef Peninsula. Found a finely-branded yearling just in 
front of " Old John Rock " on Gorbatch, among the cows and pups. 

November 4. Took charge of a " food-drive ' ' at Northeast Point and attempted to procure branded 
yearlings. In a drive of 386 seals from a herd of a thousand or more near Sea Lion Point, there were 
no branded yearlings and scarcely any seals small enough to have been yearlings. 

After the killing this morning, I took two natives and returned to the rookeries to search again 
for yearlings. Only 50 bachelors hauled out where we drove from last evening and these all three- 
year-olds or older. Went to bluff at front of Hutchinson Hill and looked over the big mass of cows 
and pups there for half an hour. Saw no branded yearlings, but a dozen or more very small seals that 
I am sure were yearlings scattered along the edges of the herd, mostly on the sandy area just in front 
of the bluff. 

November 10. A drive was made from Reef, but it contained no branded yearlings, out of a total 
of 400 seals driven. 

November n. While on a trip after the reindeer, Hatton saw one branded yearling at Polovina 
Rookery. 

The total number of branded yearlings noted in 191 3 on St. Paul Island may be 
summarized as follows: 

Branded yearlings seen on St. Paul Island, IQ13. 



Date. 


Rookery. 


Number 
seen. 


Observers. 


July 24 

Aug. 10 
16 

Oct. 14 
18 
19 
24 

Nov. n 


Reel 


1 

1 
3 

1 
1 
1 
1 
r 


G. A. Clark, W. I. Lembkey, and 

A. G. Whitney. 
Mr. and Mrs. A. G. Whitney. 
P. R. E. Hatton. 
A. G. Whitney and P. R. E. Hatton. 

Do. 
A. G. Whitney. 

Do. 
P. R. E. Hatton. 


Kitovi 






do 








Total 


10 





FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



63 



On St. George Island, a much larger number was seen, the total being 74, but here, 
as well as on St. Paul, it was impossible to be certain that some animals had not been 
counted more than once, so the total is a maximum. The observations on St. George 
Island, as shown bv the notes of Messrs. Proctor and Hanna, were as follows : 

Branded yearlings seen on St. George Island, IQ13. 



Date. 


Rookery. 


Number 
seen. 


Observer. 


Aug. 16 
26 
30 

Sept. 4 
4 
6 
13 

Oct. 11 
18 
21 
26 

Nov. 5 
10 

25 




2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
3 
5 
4 
3 

10 
12 
25 


A. H. Proctor. 
G. D. Hanna. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
A. H. Proctor. 
G. D. Hanna. 
A. H. Proctor. 

Do. 

Do. 


North 




North 




do 


North 


...do . 




North 


...do.. 




North 


do 


Total St. George Island. 


74 



Efforts to obtain specimens of branded yearlings and records of weights and 
measurements on St. Paul Island were unsuccessful, but on St. George three of the 
animals were secured and two others obviously of the same age, but unbranded. These 
were measured and weighed in the presence of Agent Proctor by Mr. Hanna, who is an 
experienced zoological collector accustomed to measuring animals. The data obtained 
and certified to by Messrs. Hanna and Proctor follow: 

Measurements and weights of male yearlings, St. George Island. 11 



Date. 


Length, b 


Weight of 
animal. 


Weight of 
skin. 




1913- 

Aug. 16 

16 

Nov. 5 

Oct. 21 

21 


Inches. 
37 
35 3 A 
36 
34H 
35*J 


Lbs. oz. 
39 4 
37 8 
41 12 
39 15 
33 10 


Lbs. oz. 

4 6 

3 13 

C S II 

c s 2 

c 4 13 


Branded. 

Do. 

Do. 
Not branded. 

Do. 



Since these were taken after Aug. 10, the assumption is justified that they were from a few days to several weeks more than 
12 months of age. 

6 Length of animal from tip of nose to root of tail, taken with tapeline before skinning. 

c This weight is inclusive of the skin of the head; the other weights are of skills prepared in the usual manner without the 
head skin or ''mask." 

Although yearlings may have been recognized and measured in the past, these 
figures are the first and only available ones based on the examination of seals of posi- 
tively known age. The weights of the two skins taken in the usual manner are well 
below 5 pounds, the minimum prescribed by the Government regulations for killings 
in past years. The others weighed somewhat more, owing to the inclusion of the head- 
skin or "mask," which is ordinarily left on the carcass. Such a mask from a skin of 
only 3 pounds 8%" ounces total weight was weighed August 18, 1914, and found to weigh 
3^ ounces, or 6.2 per cent of the total weight. With allowance for this extra weight it 
is seen that even the skin taken November 5, and therefore from an animal of some 15 
months of age, only slightly exceeded 5 pounds, and all the others were less than that. 
84512°— S. Doc. 980, 63-3 5 



64 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The total body weights of these yearlings, taken immediately after killing and before 
bleeding or skinning, are interesting in comparison with weights of pups taken late in 
the season. They indicate that after the pups leave the islands, fattened by an easy 
life and ample nourishment from their mother's milk, they lose weight, and many of 
them may actually return to the islands the following summer weighing less than when 
they left. Under instructions to weigh six of the smallest pups and six of the largest 
to be found on November 17, 1914, Agent Fassett submitted the following results: 
Average of smallest four weighed 25^ pounds; average of next smallest four, 33^ 
pounds; average of largest four, 48^ pounds. Individual weights, recorded in pounds, 
were as follows: 24^, 25K. 25K, ^7H> 4 2 K» 43X, 49/<> 5*%- The average weight 
of the four smallest and the four largest is 37.3 pounds, which may be taken as a fair 
average for November pups ; this is only slightly less than that of the yearlings. The 
great variation in the weight of gray pups is doubtless due in part to early or late 
birth, but it is evident that this is largely compensated during the first long hard winter 
at sea, when the weaklings succumb and general vigor rather than mere weight deter- 
mines survival, so that on the return to the islands the yearlings as a class show 
comparative uniformity. 

Movements of yearlings. — The observations of branded yearlings in 1913, partic- 
ularly those of Mr. A. G. Whitney, who has kindly submitted his notes for examina- 
tion, show that yearlings first appear in very small numbers late in July, and that they 
are seen in greater numbers in August and later months. They are seldom found on 
the hauling grounds with the bachelors, but prefer the areas occupied by the cows and 
pups, being found most frequently near the shore engaged in play with the pups, which 
they do not greatly exceed in size. All specimens taken were of the male sex. Obser- 
vations made in 1914 confirm those of 1913 in all important respects.. Although no 
branded yearlings were present in 1914, the identification of seals of this class was 
rendered comparatively certain by the knowledge of the observations made the previous 
year, and especially by the presence of known 2 -year-olds with distinctive brands, 
which were practically always available for comparison. During the entire month of 
July the hauling grounds were repeatedly scrutinized for yearlings, but at no time were 
any seals seen that were smaller than the known branded 2 -year-olds. In the same way 
all food drives from July 1 to August 18, in which seals to the total number of 5,105 
were passed in review in small pods under close examination, showed nothing smaller 
than 2-year-olds. The first yearlings were observed August 17, and after that date 
others were seen frequently. Of those seen, however, only two were among the bachelors, 
and even these may have been frightened away from the margin of a breeding area by 
the natives in rounding up the bachelors. In view of these facts it seems highly improb- 
able that yearlings ever resort to the hauling grounds in numbers, and it is practically 
conclusive that during the killing season, which ends July 31, they seldom come to 
land at all. 

Observations of yearlings made in 191 4 are indicated by the following extracts 
from the field notes of W. H. Osgood: 

August 17. Started at 7.15 a. m. for Northeast Point with Preble, Macoun, Hanna, Ball, and four 
natives. Macoun stopped to botanize at Polovina. Went out (on Vostochni Rookery) and drove 
bachelors for branded 2-year-olds and clipped 31; also saw one St. Paul return and one St. George 
return. Counted pods to a total of 2,945, and fully 1,000 got away into the water and elsewhere, and 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 65 

were not driven. Not the least doubt that there were over 4,000 bachelors hauled; many were in with 
the cows and could not be herded. In all this number of seals only two were seen that by any possi- 
bility could have been yearlings. These Hanna thinks undoubtedly were yearlings, and he was the 
only one of the party that ever had seen any before. I was well enough convinced of it, for they were" 
obviously smaller than the 2-year-olds, the size of which is, of course, very well fixed in our minds 
after all the branded ones we have observed during the summer. Only two in a drive of practically 
3,000 seals, however, shows that they are on land in very small numbers, and I am positive we have 
not seen any earlier in the season. 

August 20: Went to Tolstoi and watched seals. * * * Saw two seals (among the cows) that 
appeared to be yearlings. 

August 2 1 : This afternoon went to Gorbatch for a short time and found many bachelors on the 
"Parade Ground," perhaps eight or nine hundred, including a number that were hauled out on the 
plateau extending between Gorbatch and Reef. Was rather surprised to note a copulation near Rock 14. 
The bull was an old harem master and the cow not very young. Her pup was quite small, evidently 
only a few days old. Saw a couple seals I think were no doubt yearlings (near Rock 14). 

August 23: On Lukanin, saw a very small yearling not much larger than one of the largest pups. 

August 24: With a little search, yearlings can be found on any of the rookeries now. 

August 25: Went to Kitovi. * * * Saw a number of yearlings (15 or 20) along the edge of the 
water playing with the pups and with each other. Went to Tolstoi again in the afternoon. Large 
hauling of bachelors on beach. Saw a branded 2-year-old cow among them and photographed her at 
short range with a 3-year-old bachelor that was paying her attention. Saw two or three yearlings near 
the water's edge with the pups. Preble tells me he saw at least a dozen among some pups at the edge 
of the water at Zapadni to-day. I don't believe they associate with the bachelors much more than the 
pups do. 

August 28: Went over Reef, Ardiguen, and Gorbatch looking especially for yearlings and cross- 
branded 5-year-olds. * * * Saw a couple yearlings on Gorbatch and a half-dozen on Reef, in both 
cases associated with the cows. 

THE 2- YEAR-OLDS. 

Two-year-old males . — Early in the season of 1914 seals began to be noted in the 
food drives having the clearly marked T brand on the top of the head. These were 
animals branded as pups in 1912 and therefore were undoubted 2-year-olds in 1914. 
As yearlings they had been noted in 191 3 in small numbers and only late in the season, 
but as 2-year-olds in 1914 they appeared as early as June 12, and soon became fairly 
common. As many as 32 were recorded in a single food drive of only 566 bachelors 
on July 25 on St. George Island. Throughout the period from June 22 to August 28 
failure to find at least several of these branded 2 -year-olds on any hauling ground was a 
rare occurrence. The brands were clear and distinct and easily recognized, making it 
possible by the use of field glasses to note branded animals at a distance of 100 yards or 
more and to compare them with the other bachelors hauled without any disturbance of 
the herd. Allowing the usual deductions for natural mortality, not over 1,200 males 
of the total branding of 5,529 pups of both sexes should have survived to the age of 2 
years. Therefore it was not to be expected that any large number of them would be 
seen at any one time or place. However, an effort was made to keep a definite record 
of those which appeared. In order that none should be counted twice, the branded 
animals were caught and marked by clipping the hair from one side of the head and no 
record was kept of any except those so marked. Owing to pressure of other matters, 
it was not possible to make more than two special drives for this purpose, so the seals 
marked and recorded were for the most part limited to those appearing in the food drives. 
Moreover, through misunderstanding of instructions, the work was not continued through 
August and September by the agent and was not resumed until late in October and 



66 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



November, when a large proportion of the herd had left the islands. Nevertheless, a 
total of 315 was recorded, and it is evident that many ttiore were present at times when 
no enumeration was made. 

During the season, 13 branded 2-year-old males were killed at food killings and sub- 
jected to special examination. Three others taken in November have been reported 
upon by Agent Fassett. The data obtained from these examples are given below: 

Measurements and weights of 2-year-old males. 



Date. 


Length of 
body." 


Length of 
skull. » 


Weight of 
skin. 


Remarks. 


1914. 
July 1 

1 
1 
1 
9 

31 
21 
21 
21 

Aug. 1 
18 
18 
18 

Nov. 17 
17 
18 

Average . 


Inches. 
C 39'A 
o&X 
c 4i 
c 3«4 
<*42 

C42 
c 4lK 

c vK 

c 4lK 

C4IJ* 

C 3&X 

C 4 I 
C 4 I 

/4IM 

/411V 

/43A 


Millimeters. 
173 
176 
173 
174 


Lbs. Oz. 


St. Paul Island. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
St. George Island. (Live 
weight 57 pounds 12 
ounces.) 
St. Paul Island. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 








e s 7 

S 6H 

4 9K 

5 8 

5 9K 
4 13 

4 8 

5 12 

4 11H 

S 

4 I3K 

5 I2J< 




176 
180 
178 
173 
170 
181 
i7S 






4oK 


I7sft 


*S 2 



o From tip of nose to root of tail. 

& Condylobasal length. 

c Measured by W. H. Osgood, G. H. Parker, and E. A. Preble. 

<* Measured by G. D. Hanna and A. H. Proctor. 

* Including skin of head. 

/Measured by G. D. Hanna and H. C. Fassett. 

S Exclusive of November examples. 

^ Eight skins taken July 21-August 18. 

Two-year-old females. — The 2-year-old females begin to land at about the height of 
the season or just before the harems of old cows have broken up. They become more 
numerous after the break-up but are never seen in large numbers. Some of them join 
the regular harems and remain for perhaps two or three days, but as a rule they do not 
stay long in one place. In a few cases, small harems composed exclusively of 2-year-olds 
may be seen but this is exceptional. Probably many of them are served near the water 
and never reach the rookery ground beyond. Although not always distinguishable with 
certainty from young cows of three or perhaps four years, they have certain character- 
istics which would doubtless be recognized by an experienced observer in practically all 
cases. They are generally very fat and sleek and seem relatively short-bodied with 
short front flippers, very light-colored breasts, and short dark whiskers. These char- 
acters are not absolutely distinctive, but when combined with observation of the general 
appearance and actions and the indifference to the pups, they serve to make the identi- 
fication of the 2-year-old female fairly certain. These females enter the rookery ground 
with obvious hesitancy; their whole demeanor is that of inexperience and coyness, 
and they take flight at the slighest alarm. A few of them occasionally stray to the 
hauling grounds, and when once there sometimes persist in remaining until literally 
driven into the sea by the unwelcome attentions of the younger bachelors. During the 
season of 1914, with one exception, the only females found in drives were 2-year-olds. 



Bur,!.. U. S. B. P., 1914. 



Plate IX. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



67 



Although branded 2-year-old males were seen in numbers in 1914, females with 
brands were observed in only 10 instances, probably because the females remain on 
land but a short time. The first branded females were seen on Polovina on July 19. " 
In company with some 20 others apparently of the same age, three of these branded 
animals were observed on a gravel beach beneath a low bluff at the north end of the 
rookery. They were in charge of a small 5-year-old bull who made a futile effort to 
hold them and then followed as they all rushed into the sea. During the next 10 days a 
few females, believed to be 2-year-olds, were seen but none branded. On August 1, in 
a drive from Reef rookery, a branded female was accidently killed. On August n a 
branded female was noted near Rock 14 on Gorbatch wandering over the breeding 
ground obviously unattached to any particular place. Another seen on Reef August 13 
was among some older cows apparently held by an old bull, but, as the old cows made 
for the water, the bull followed and a young bull quickly made advances to the 2 -year-old 
cow which remained. On the Tolstoi sands August 25 a branded cow was found among 
the bachelors being harassed by a 3-year-old whose attentions were vigorously resented, 
the cow tumbling about plainly seeking a place where she might be undisturbed. Still 
later, on August 28, two branded cows were seen playing together in the irregular mass 
of cows, pups, and roving bachelors on the breeding ground of Reef Rookery. Tate in 
the season, on November 17, as reported by telegraph, a branded 2-year-old female was 
accidently killed in a food drive from Tolstoi rookery. The sizes and weights of the 
2-year-old females which died through overheating or by accident in drives in 1914 are 
as follows : 

Measurements and weights of 2-year-old females. 



Date. 


Length. 


Weight of 
skin. 


Live 
weight. 


Remarks. 


1914. 
Aug. 1 
18 
18 
Nov. 17 " 


Inches. 
38K 
39 

3 8 . 
45K 


Lbs. oz. 

3 14 

3 5 
5 7 


Lbs. oz. 
6 29 12 


Branded. 
Unbranded." 

Do. <* 
Branded. 



a The determination of the age of the unbranded animals is made positive by examination of the skulls which were preserved 
and compared with those of the branded animals. 

b Although no other weights of 2-year-old females were obtained, it was evident that this was an exceptionally small example; 
until its skull was examined it was thought to be a yearling. 

c Measured and weighed by H. C. Fassett. 

THE 3- YEAR-OLD BACHELORS. 

The presence of numerous branded 2-year-olds of known age in 1914 made the 
identification of the 3-year-olds comparatively certain. Owing to the importance of 
this class as the one from which killings and reserves are taken, a special effort was 
made to determine its characteristics. With this end in view, a large number of sup- 
posed 3-year-olds killed for food were carefully measured and their skins weighed. 
In addition the complete skull of each was preserved and tagged with a number corre- 
sponding to the number attached to the skin. These skulls were then brought to the 
National Museum and there prepared for study. In the same way, skulls were pre- 
served of the branded 2 -year-olds taken and of a small number regarded by the natives 
as 4-year-olds, 5-year-olds, and 6-year-olds. Using these skulls as a check on the 
measurements taken in the field, it was possible to determine with a high degree of 



68 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

accuracy the age of any particular seal, to test the judgment of the natives, and to 
learn the range of variation in size among seals of a given class. Thus, if a supposed 
3-year-old showed a small body measurement it was possible to examine its skull and 
compare it with that of a known 2-year-old and so leain whether it was in reality a small 
3-year-old or a 2-year-old mistaken for a 3-year-old. As the combined result of field 
observations and measurements and the study of skulls and teeth, it was found that 
the total length of 3-year-old bachelors is subject to but little variation, and that the 
natives are able to distinguish seals of this class with a very small percentage of error. 

During a food killing on July 1, 1914, at which the native clubbers were instructed 
to proceed as usual and kill only 3-year-olds, 37 seals taken at random as they were killed 
were caiefully measured with a steel tape and their skulls tagged and preserved. Thirty- 
five of these proved to be undoubted 3-year-olds, one was a 2-year-old, and one was 
larger than the others and may have been a small 4-year-old. The total length vaiied 
from 45 to 52 inches and in 71 per cent of cases it was from 46 to 48 inches. At a later 
killing on August 10, 61 seals were measured in similar manner, using calipers instead 
of tape, which gave a slightly smaller result in each case but the same lelative uniformity 
prevailed. One of the 61 proved to be a 2 -year-old and the remaining 60 were un- 
doubted 3-year-olds. The length measurement varied from 42 yi to 51 inches and in 
93 per cent of cases was from 44 to 49 K inches. Such uniformity is not found in the 
weight of the animals, which may be fat or lean, nor in the weights of the skins, which 
vary according to the amount of blubber removed. It is found in the skulls, however, 
and these serve to corroborate the accuracy and significance of the length measure- 
ments. The seals of any two generations differ from each other as a class by not less 
than 10 months in age, and since in the males there is a rapid growth from 2 until 6 
years of age, it is evident that differences due to age are likely to be more pronounced 
than those due to individual variation. A study of skulls proves this to be the case, 
and with rare exceptions the age of any given skull may be determined upon the basis 
of growth characters familiar to students of osteology. With the skull, as with the 
animal, the length measuiement is the principal reliance, although other characters 
are considered. The skull of a newly born pup is short with a broad flattened brain- 
case having no bony ridges or prominences ; the facial part of the skull is relatively 
undeveloped and the teeth are just beginning to appear. In the 2-year male these 
conditions in general still prevail, although the bone has thickened and the skull become 
more lengthened. In the 3-year-old a more definite lengthening has taken place, the 
braincase is higher and relatively narrower, and ridges and prominences begin to show. 
This process is carried farther in the 4-year-old and in succeeding years until in the old 
male the skull which began smooth and flat becomes relatively high with various prom- 
inences and a high bony ridge extending lengthwise over the top of the braincase. (See 
pi. ix and x.) 

The data obtained from the 3-year-olds measured on July 1, 1914, of which all 
the skulls were preserved, are as follows: 



Bull. U. S. B. P., 1914. 



Plate X. 




g.3 

■9 s 



~ o 

O M 



si ts 

^m .-a, 

* ■ !? 



TJ 





i\ 




. 

ft ^ 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOP ISLANDS, 1914. 

Measurements of yyear-old males, -with weights of skins, St. Paul Island, fuly I, IQ14. 



69 



Tag No. 



5576 

S578 

5579 

5581 

5582 

5585 

5587 

5588 

5589 

5590 

5592 

5593 

5594 

5595 

5596 

5597 

5598 

5599 

5600 

5601 

5602 

5603 

5604 

5605 

5606 

5607 

5608 

5609 

5610 

5612 

5613 

5614 

5615 

5616 

5017 

Average 



Length of 
body in 
inches. 



L sSS h in of n ?htof 

.... SKIP 

millimeters. 



47 

46 

47K 

45H 

48 

S^A 

47 

46 

46 

46K 

46H 

50 

49 

46 

46 

48K 

48K 

49 3 A 

48K 

46 

48K 

51 

48K 

52K 

47K 

5°X 

5oM 

m< 

46H 

47 

48K 

47K 

47X 

47K 

49 



18s 
182 
188 
186 
194 
197 
192 
189 
185 
184 
18s 
198 
189 
187 
189 
191 



186 
197 
192 
194 
j 86 
196 
194 
196 
193 
188 
195 
190 
183 
187 
182 



Lbs. Oz. 



1534 
12a 
n'A 

}A 

6 
lo>A 

iH 

iA 

10A 

sA 



4 

7 
13H 

iA 
nA 

2A 
"K 

3 

a 



4 3 A 

2'A 

4 

11A 
3 
4 



o These measurements were taken with a steel tape stretched over the back of the animal from the tip of nose to the root of 
tail. Measurements taken with calipers give slightly smaller figures. 

THE 4- YEAR OLD BACHELORS. 

The 4-year-olds associate with the younger bachelors on the hauling grounds, and 
though some of them may be distinguished by their dark breasts and occasionally by 
an incipient "wig," as a class they differ from the 3-year-olds mainly in slightly increased 
size. 

Only a few 4-year-olds were killed in 1914, and most of these had their skulls so 
badly shattered that they were not preserved. The data as to 4-year-olds, therefore, 
are somewhat meager. In the case of five examples they are as follows: 

Measurements of 4-year-old males, with weights of skins, 1914. 



Weight of 


skin. 


Us. 


Oz. 


8 


13A 


8 


X 


9 


5 


8 


4K 


8 


SH 



Tag No. 



Length of 

animal in 

inches. 



Length of 

skull in 

millimeters. 



5802 
5803 
S804 
5807 
5808 



58 

53K 

57K 

56'A 

52 



202 
205 
208 
207 
204 



7o 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENTS. 

In view of the foregoing, it is evident that bachelor seals of various ages can be 
distinguished with a high degree of accuracy; that the difference between them is best 
expressed in the total length of the animal taken before it is skinned; and that weights, 
either of animals or of skins carrying varying amounts of blubber, are unreliable as a 
criterion for age. As stated elsewhere, therefore, it is desirable that the classification 
of seals killed be made upon the basis of measurement rather than weight. It should 
be said, also, that the native clubbers are able to distinguish seals of different ages 
with very few exceptions, and that a system of measurement in the field would tend 
to increase their efficiency and reduce their mistakes to a minimum. The measurements 
made in 1914 may be subject to slight revision with further experience and practice, 
but in general it seems safe to state that, with possible rare exceptions, yearlings have a 
body length between 34 and 37 inches; 2-year-olds between 37 and 43 inches; 3-year-olds 
between 43 and 52 inches, and 4-year-olds between 52 and 59 inches. The data on the 
several classes are summarized below: 



Condensed measurements of young males. 



Age. 



Average 

body- 
length in 
inches. 



Extremes 
of body 

length in 
inches. 



Average 

length of 

skull in 

millimeters 



Extremes 
of length of 

skull in 
millimeters. 



Number 
measured. 



Yearlings . 
a-year-olds 
3-year-olds 
4-year-olds 



35ft 
4°i 



345-37 
363-44 
4Si~52i 
52 -58 



175-3 
192 
205. 2 



170-181 
182-198 
202-208 



5 
13 
35 

5 



MORTALITY OF SEALS. 



DEATH OF PUPS ON LAND. 



In making the pup count between July 29 and August 5, the number of dead pups, 
as well as of live ones, was regularly recorded. When the rookeries were on a narrow 
stretch of beach, the dead pups were enumerated as they were passed over in counting 
the live ones. Where the rookeries spread out over extensive areas, however, these 
areas were examined for dead pups after the live ones had been counted. In the follow- 
ing table are given the total numbers of pups, the numbers of dead pups, and the per- 
centages of dead pups in 1914 for each rookery on the two islands as ascertained at the 
time of the count of pups, July 29 to August 5. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 

Mortality of pups, summer of 1(114. 



71 



Rookeries. 


Total of 
pups. 


Dead pups. 


Percentage 
dead. 


St. Paxil Island: 


2, 119 
1,834 
6, 152 

656 
13,559 
4,052 

375 
9,931 
7,625 
4,919 

206 
3,555 
1,449 

927 
2,312 
19,709 


47 
73 
85 
II 

206 

68 

2 

174 

126 
79 
3 
71 
18 
17 
44 

499 






3 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

X 


9 
3 
6 

5 
6 
5 
7 
6 
5 
4 
9 
2 
8 
8 






Reef 






Tolstoi 










Polovina Cliffs 








Total 




79,483 


1,523 


1.9 


St. George Island: 

North 


5,301 
4,278 
1,023 
26 
581 
2,658 


112 
63 

8 

1 

5 

31 


2. 1 
1.4 

•7 
3-8 

.8 
1. 1 






Little East 


East Reef 


East Cliffs 


Total 


13, 767 


220 


1-5 




93, 250 


1,743 


1.8 









It will be seen from this table that the mortality of pups up to about August 5 
was 1.8 per cent of the total number born and that no rookery diverged far from this 
percentage. The highest death rate was on Lukanin, 3.9 per cent, and the lowest on 
Lagoon, 0.5 per cent. These figures show conclusively that during the season of 1914 
there were no noteworthy epidemics of any kind among the pups. 

The dead pups were usually found on the rookery grounds, and often gave evidence 
of having been dead several weeks. Some few, particularly on Reef and on Tolstoi, 
had been dragged away by the foxes and their remains were found at the mouths of the 
fox burrows on ground adjacent to the rookeries. As there was no evidence of any 
epidemic, the dead pups were not especially examined. It is probable, as Marsh has 
pointed out (Science, vol. 36, p. 397, 1912), that starvation, asphyxia neonatorum, and 
crushing by rocks and landslides are the chief fatal accidents of early life, and that 
uncinariasis is the principal fatal disease of this period. In a report made by Marsh in 
1 91 2 to the Department of Commerce and Labor on the causes of death of 175 pups 
examined in that year, 81 (46 per cent) were believed to have died of starvation, 24 
(14 per cent) of asphyxia neonatorum, 19 (11 per cent) from accidents due to landslides, 
etc., and 12 (7 per cent) to uncinariasis. These four causes were believed to be the chief 
occasions of death among the young pups in the season of 191 2. Since the death rate 
in that season was estimated at 1.2 per cent of the total number of pups born, and since 
in 1914 this rate was much the same, 1.8 per cent, it seems probable that the causes 
of death already enumerated have continued to act in 1 914 as in 191 2. 

An inspection of the table will show, as already pointed out, considerable uniformity 
so far as the death rates of the various rookeries are concerned. The chief divergences 
in the direction of larger numbers are to be seen in Little East Rookery on St. George, 
and in Lukanin and less so in Vostochni on St. Paul. In Little East Rookery the condi- 
tion is a mere accident due to the small total number of pups present and in Lukanin, 



72 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

which shows the most considerable divergence of all, the increase is scarcely noteworthy. 
In Vostochni a state of affairs was observed which may explain its slight excess. 

In this rookery there has always been a very large area between Hutchinson Hill 
and the sea covered with a relatively enormous aggregation of harems. At the height 
of the season and later, this area has upon it a dense population of pups. On its sides 
are extensive hauling grounds for bachelors, with runways leading to the sea. Pups may 
stray to the ground occupied by the bachelors, become lost, and eventually die of 
starvation or of mistreatment from the bachelors, for the latter were often seen mauling 
pups and even attempting to copulate with them. Since not a few of the dead pups 
recorded for Vostochni were found well within the hauling grounds, some of them 
bearing the toothmarks of the bachelors, it is highly probable that they met their deaths 
in the way indicated and thus Vostochni may have suffered in this respect somewhat 
more than most of the other rookeries. Large numbers of bachelors close to aggregated 
harems certainly afford, as just indicated, unfavorable conditions for pups, though as 
a cause for their death, this condition is not to be compared in the number of victims 
that it claims with such other causes as starvation, asphyxia neonatorum, etc. 

DEATH OF YOUNG SEALS AT SEA. 

The first year is universally considered as the most fatal in the life of seals, the loss 
during this period by natural causes, though necessarily unknown, being assumed to be 
50 per cent. Since the loss from all causes during the first month or so of life, before the 
animal has learned to swim, is seen to amount to less than 2 per cent, it follows that other 
and very potent causes must operate. 

During the few weeks following the time the animals have learned to swim, deaths 
from starvation must continue to form a considerable proportion of the total loss. 
The young animals now wander farther and farther from the spot where they were born, 
and by late August may be found in numbers at a distance of a mile or more from any 
breeding place. It necessarily follows that the mothers, on returning from feeding, 
must experience increasing difficulty in finding their offspring, and the conclusion is 
unavoidable that some are never found and are thus deprived of the natural means 
of subsistence. Little is known regarding the time when the young seals first learn 
to shift entirely for themselves. Although they may pick up a small amount of 
food while paddling about the shores in the early autumn, it is not likely that they 
actually learn to fish until they leave with the older seals on their first migration. The 
search for dead pups in early fall has always resulted in a considerable addition to the 
number of dead as taken at the time of the regular count. 

While the young pups are still about the islands in autumn many are destroyed 
by killer whales (Orca gladiator), which are frequently observed singly or in small schools 
cruising about in front of the rookeries and are known to prey especially on the pups. 
The following actual records of killer whales observed about St. Paul Island in autumn, 
selected from a large number of observations taken from the island log by the late Dr. 
Hahn, indicate to some degree the part played by them in the destruction of young 
seals. A large school of killers was seen near East Landing on October 21, 1875, and 
five near the same place on September 21, 1891 ; one seen off Reef Rookery on Decem- 
ber 2, 1902, was playing havoc with a band of seals; fragments of both cows and pups, 
the work of killer whales, were found strewn along the beach at Northeast Point on 
November 6, 1904. In the autumn of 1907 killers were reported on numerous occasions, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 73 

and native watchmen at Northeast Point and Polovina reported considerable destruc- 
tion. A killer 24 feet long was stranded at Northeast Point on December 16, 1908. 
On November 1, 191 3, G. Dallas Hanna observed three killers close to the reef near 
the village of St. George preying on the seal pups. Two of these came so close to the 
bluffs that he was able to hit them with a rifle and killed at least one. 

These records indicate that killer whales are by no means uncommon about the 
Pribilofs. The stomachs of two killers examined by Capt. Bryant contained, respec- 
tively, 18 and 24 seal pups, a and it is certain that the total number of young seals killed 
by them must be very great. 

DEATH OF ADULT SEALS. 

Regarding the death of seals at sea from natural causes little is known from actual 
observation. Deaths from old age usually take place at sea and probably result mainly 
from the animals being unable because of infirmity to procure food. There is good 
reason to suppose that a very considerable loss of adults is caused by killer whales. 
The fact that these destructive animals are frequently observed about the Pribilofs at 
the time of the arrival of the main body of the seals strongly suggests that they attend 
the seal herd on its migration. Entries from the St. Paul journal before referred to show 
that many killers were seen on June 6, 1877, and several seals bearing evidence of hav- 
ing been attacked by them were observed; many were observed between St. Paul and 
Walrus Island on June 6 and 8, 1881; they were numerous May 15, 1884, and May 19, 
1886, and on the latter date both the seals and sea lions were taking to the shore at 
Northeast Point to escape them; many were seen close to shore on May 28, 1888, and 
an entry of May 31, 1889, asserts that the natives reported killers more numerous that 
spring than at any time within their memory. On June 1, 1894, a school of these whales 
was killing seals at Kitovi and near East Landing, and several were shot with rifles. 
Other records of killers, in some cases accompanied by the specific statement that they 
were preying on seals, occurred under the following dates: May 22, 23, and 26, 1900; 
May 5, 1903; July 18, 1902; and June 6 and 21, 1910. That the old bulls do not suffer 
much from their attacks is suggested by an entry under date of May 24, 1900, when 
two killers were observed near the shore, while the bulls rolling about in the water near 
them were not attacked and showed no fear. On the other hand large seals and even 
sea lions have been known to take to the land to avoid them. Writers on the habits 
of killers speak particularly of the destruction waged among seals by these voracious 
animals. There is, of course, a certain proportion of deaths among the older seals, 
principally the breeders, while they are on the islands. Deaths of bulls occur rather 
rarely from fighting, though in the event of a great excess of males this factor might 
be an important one. Under conditions as observed in 19 14 no evidence of any 
mortality from this cause was found, though several bulls were badly injured by their 
fellows. In the case of the single bull found dead during the summer no specific cause 
of death could be ascertained. 

Among the cows, deaths during the breeding season are mainly from two causes — 
from the accidents of birth and from the injuries inflicted by the bulls in contending for 
supremacy. Mortality from these causes has been elsewhere discussed (p. 54). In 
general, the condition of the cows found dead at the time of the counting of pups is 
such that the specific cause of death is not apparent. 

a Rept. Fur-Seal Investigations, 1896-97, pt. 3, p. 93, 1899. 



74 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

THE EFFECT OF PELAGIC SEALING. 

LOSSES DUE TO PELAGIC SEALING. 

The effect of pelagic sealing has been the subject of much discussion to which ref- 
erence is not necessary at present. This form of sealing, insignificant at first, began 
to be important about 1880 and continued until effectively stopped by international 
agreement in 1911. The total loss to the herd directly or indirectly due to pelagic seal- 
ing can never be known. The records show that in Bering Sea and on the Northwest 
coast during the period from 1880 to 191 1 approximately 900,000 skins were secured 
and marketed by the pelagic sealers. When it is considered that from three to five 
seals were killed for every one retrieved and that a large percentage were females whose 
unborn pups perished with them and whose pups on land were left to starve, it is plain 
that the total losses ran well into the millions. In every season since 1 890 the recorded 
pelagic catch exceeded the land catch, so that during this period of steady decline of 
the herd even the primary losses due to pelagic sealing were greater than those of land 
killing. 

INFORMATION TO BE GAINED FROM THE CESSATION OF PELAGIC SEALING. 

The present importance of a consideration of the effects of pelagic sealing lies in 
the contrast between present and former conditions. Now, for the first time during 
American ownership the herd is increasing and an opportunity is afforded for studying 
its behavior under approximately natural conditions. In previous times practically all 
efforts for knowledge of the numbers and movements of various classes of seals, all data 
as to rates of increase 01 decrease, and all measures looking toward regulation of killing 
and leserving of breeders were subject to the unknown and uncontrolled factors con- 
tributed by pelagic sealing. With pelagic sealing stopped, the time has arrived for a 
thorough study of the problems hitherto in question solely or chiefly because of the 
existence of pelagic sealing. The most important of these relate to the percentage of 
survival to killable size and to the reserving of males for breeding. After the thorough 
demonstration of the evils of pelagic sealing and after all the effort expended to abolish 
it, legislation or regulations which perpetuate some of the very obstacles against which 
we have been contending should be avoided so far as possible. While the cessation of 
pelagic sealing is principally a matter of congratulation because it insures the preser- 
vation of the herd, it is evident that our immediate practical benefit from it is the 
opportunity it permits for obtaining information which will be absolutely essential in 
conducting land operations in the future. Thus far we have only partially taken 
advantage of this opportunity by obtaining full counts of pups in 1912, 1913, and 1914. 
The information thus obtained has been of great value, but a further use for it of the 
highest importance will appear in 1915 and 1916, when it might be applied in connec- 
tion with liberal killing and reserving to determine the percentage of male seals which 
naturally survive to killable age. This information in regard to the males could then 
be applied to the females which doubtless survive in approximately the same propor- 
tions. Thus it would be possible at an early date to have for future guidance certain 
very definite data as to natural death rates and percentages of increase of great 
importance in the management of the herd. 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 19 14. 



Plate XI. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 75 

EFFECT OF PELAGIC SEALING STILL EVIDENT. 

The treaty abolishing pelagic sealing became effective December 15, 1911. There- 
fore, killing at sea was going on in the summer of 191 1, and although only 14,511 
skins were taken, and these may have included animals from the Russian and Japanese 
herds, the usual failure to retrieve all seals killed and the starvation of pups as the result 
of the death of their mothers must have made the losses to the herd much greater than 
the recorded catch. Since 191 1 no seals have been taken at sea except the negligible 
few speared from canoes by natives according to law. The patrol of the fleet of revenue 
cutters has been continued but no sealers or marauders have been detected. The 
nature of pelagic sealing was such that it could not fail to leave the herd in a very abnor- 
mal condition. The number of seals killed and the proportions of different classes 
taken at sea were necessarily quite fortuitous. Young cows, old pregnant cows, bach- 
elors, and even old bulls were killed indiscriminately. It is possible that some of the 
resulting irregular proportions may have had chance compensation from year to year, 
but there can be little doubt that the cessation of pelagic sealing left the proportions of 
young and old breeding seals in far from normal condition. The breeding life of the 
bulls is 7 to 8 years and of the cows 10 to 11 years. This being the case, and other things 
being equal, about one-sixth of the bulls and about one-tenth of the cows would die 
each year of old age. The proportion of each age from the youngest to the oldest would 
be evenly graded and reliable calculations of the general rate of increase could be deducted 
from the birth rate and the death rate. 

It is evident that these proportions can not be reestablished until all the seals 
subject to pelagic sealing have died and been replaced by others. This will require 12 
to 14 years, although approximately natural conditions may be expected somewhat 
sooner. Seals born in 191 1 will be 12 years old in 1923 and the death rate among breed- 
ing females will then be practically normal. That abnormal conditions prevail at present 
is evident from the lack of a substantial increase of breeding cows in 1914 which can 
not be satisfactorily explained except on the assumption of an excessive death rate 
among old cows due to pelagic sealing in former years. This has been referred to else- 
where (see p. 43). 

Although the effect of pelagic sealing on the breeding herd will linger for years, it 
can have only a slight and indirect influence on the abundance of young male life. The 
combined effect of no killing at sea and very limited killing on land in the three seasons 
since 1911 has already produced an overabundance of young males. The propor- 
tion of these that will be needed in later years as breeders is no greater than it would 
be if there had never been an undue reduction of male life. The preservation of more 
than this proportion, therefore, is no more justified now than it ever would have been 
or ever will be. Although the birth rate may fluctuate for some years as the result of 
irregular mortality of old cows, a reservation of males for breeders based on a regular 
increase of cows could not fail to be ample since none of the males so reserved would be 
old enough to go out of service before normal conditions were restored. So far as the 
effects of pelagic sealing are concerned, therefore, killing and reserving of males need 
not be postponed. 



76 . BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

PELAGIC SEALING INDIRECT CAUSE OF CLOSE LAND KILLING. 

Examination of the records and chance interrogation of various individuals formerly 
connected with sealing make it clear that pelagic sealing, with its reckless and piratical 
methods, may have indirectly affected the sincerity and morale of land sealing. The 
conditions were such that it could scarcely be otherwise, and those in charge of the land 
operations can not be justly criticised for it. If there had been no pelagic sealing, the 
lessees would have desired to perpetuate the herd quite as much as the Government, 
but when it was merely a question whether the lessee or the pelagic sealer got the seal, 
it was to be expected that the lessee would take practically all he could get. As it then 
appeared, the herd was doomed any way and the preservation of a seal on land was no 
guarantee that it would not immediately be killed at sea. Thus, even if close killing on 
land be admitted, it is evident that pelagic sealing was to a considerable extent responsi- 
ble for it. This form of killing may therefore be credited with even more than its 
direct drain on the herd. It has been almost the sole cause of trouble. It is incon- 
ceivable otherwise that prudent business men, such as constituted the leasing com- 
panies, would have allowed their own interests to dwindle by the goose and golden 
egg method; and of course their agents were thoroughly familiar with at least the 
main features of the breeding habits of the seals and able to appreciate the futility of 
efforts at protection on land while wholesale destruction went on at sea. 

THE EFFFCT OF LAND SEALING. 

The effect of land killing is irretrievably involved in that of pelagic sealing. All 
things considered, it is difficult, if not practically impossible, to show that any land 
killing during American ownership has been "excessive." The killing of gray pups 
for food of natives, as practiced to some extent during the period of the first lease, was 
wasteful, but even this did not include females. The killing of males on land until 
1911 has served to reduce the catch at sea and in itself may not have produced any 
shortage of breeders. The reduction of land killing in 1892 and 1893 produced a surplus 
of old males in 1896 and 1897, but was accompanied also by a large increase in the 
pelagic catch, and it is evident that a continued cessation of land killing at that time 
would only have caused the pelagic sealers to redouble their efforts, and the herd would 
have continued its decline. In the six years from 1890 to 1895 the number of seals 
killed on land was 80,482; during the same period pelagic sealers took 295,965 and 
caused the death of at least several times as many more. In every year thereafter 
until 191 1 the pelagic catch exceeded the land catch. Under such conditions, the 
effect of any limitation of land killing was problematical. The system of reserving 
males for breeding purposes inaugurated in 1904 and continued until 191 2 had its 
objectionable features, since certain animals reserved in one season may have been killed 
the next, but in spite of this it might have been effective but for pelagic sealing. This 
is evident from the increased number of bulls in 1913 and 191 4, due to the reserves 
of 1910 and 191 1. That the reserves of former years did not produce a like number 
of bulls at the proper time was beyond doubt due to the effect of pelagic sealing. If 
larger reserves had been made, it is questionable whether they would have accomplished 
more than an increase in the pelagic catch; certainly a proportionate increase would 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 77 

have resulted. Therefore, there were no sound economic reasons for making large 
reserves. 

The quotas killed in the decade preceding the abolition of pelagic sealing would 
not have affected the breeding strength of the herd if they had not been accompanied 
by the drain of pelagic sealing. It is obvious, therefore, that equally large, or even 
larger quotas might be permitted in the absence of pelagic sealing with perfect safety. 
Remembering the great increase of bulls "which followed reduced land k illin g in 1892 
and 1893, when pelagic sealing was practically at its height, it is impossible to believe 
that the reduced killings from 1912 to 1914, with no pelagic sealing whatever, will not 
produce an overstock of bulls proportionately much greater than that of 1896 and 1897. 

So far as the present management of the herd is concerned, land killing in the past 
only serves to show that relatively large quotas may be taken. With pelagic sealing 
abolished, uncertainty in many directions ceases, and action should be governed by 
the number of seals actually found on the islands. The number to be killed or reserved 
is wholly a matter of proportions, and all the old ideas of fixed quotas and definite 
numbers should be discarded forever. These proportions are not the same as they 
would have been during pelagic sealing, and all that can be said is that in working them 
out under the new conditions, we are likely to find it possible and advisable to kill on 
land at a higher rate than when land killings were more than duplicated at sea. The 
effect of the reduced killings of the last three seasons is to be seen on the islands now 
by the most casual observer. Young male seals of four years and under are filling the 
hauling grounds again. According to the estimates, which are ultraconservative, the 
bachelors in 1914 were as follows: Yearlings, 23,067; 2-year-olds, 17,422; 3-year-olds, 
13,880; 4-year-olds, 9,939; and 5-year-olds, 1,658; a total of 65,966 young male animals. 
If only half of them lived, they would provide sendee for eight years for 989,490 cows 
at the low ratio of 1 bull to 30 cows. Of course, the cows can not reach such numbers 
for many years, so it is evident the reduced killing of the last three years has already 
provided a great excess of males. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD. 
THE GENERAL POLICY. 

Since the ratification of a treaty between the United States, Great Britain, 
Japan, and Russia effecting the complete cessation of pelagic sealing the management 
of the Pribilof seal herd is no longer to be viewed in the light of past conditions ex- 
cept as they are corroborated by the findings of the present. The way is now clear for 
the adoption of definite policies, for the acquisition of all necessary information, and 
for the development of a systematic and businesslike management worthy of and credit- 
able to the Government of the United States. 

Although sentiment might prevent the absolute extinction of the fur-seal herd, its 
preservation is principally possible because of its value as the source of an important 
commercial product. It is doubtful if it could be preserved at all were it not plain 
that conservation guarantees infinitely larger profits than immediate destruction. 
Those interested in the preservation of mid life from scientific or esthetic motives are 
fortunate when the very ends they desire are supported by strong economic reasons. 



78 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

In the case of the fur seals it is particularly evident that the only way to insure the 
growth and continuance of this wonderful display of mammalian life is to advocate a 
policy involving the taking of life. Scientist, conservationist, sentimentalist, or legis- 
lator, therefore, should view the managment of the fur-seal herd almost solely from a 
practical business standpoint. 

Laying aside all irrelevant matters of the past and considering the seal herd only 
as a piece of property to be prudently exploited, we find that simple business principles 
demand answers to three questions. First, what is the nature and extent of our property ? 
Second, what is the largest annual yield that can be taken from it consistent with 
absolute safety ? Third, what immediate provision should be made for the management 
of the business? 

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE PROPERTY. 

This subject involves much of the matter in the present report and requires only 
brief consideration in this place. To those familiar with the seal herd during periods 
of expansion, it may seem small at present, but the observer who sees it now for the 
first time can not fail to be convinced that it is still a large and exceedingly valuable 
property. It is true that the herd was once vastly larger than at present. It is true 
also that the past killing of seals at sea was both reckless and disastrous. But the 
past is gone and the injection of its issues into the present only serves to obscure the 
real vital matters which need present consideration. Of the present we know that we 
have a herd of nearly 300,000 seals under practically complete control on both land 
and sea. This herd includes not less than 93,000 breeding females producing 1 young 
annually, half the young being males and half females, and at most only 1 male to 35 
females being required for breeding. A large supply of males from 2 to 5 years of 
age is already present and a large revenue from the taking of the surplus is assured. 
Without attempting an exact calculation, it is evident that the productive capacity 
of the seal herd is equal to that of an enterprise representing an invested capital of at 
least ten millions of dollars. As such it is worthy of the highest effort for efficient 
administration. 

MANAGEMENT BASED ON PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED WITH DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The fur seal is a highly polygamous animal almost wholly controlled by man 
during the breeding season. It has been subjected to man's disposition for more than 
a century and shows no tendency to change its habits as a result of his interference. 
Seals may be driven up, counted, caught and examined, branded, or killed even more 
easily than range cattle or horses. After being driven they return to their accustomed 
resorts as if nothing had happened. Except that they have not yet been improved 
by man, they are scarcely more to be regarded as wild animals than the majority of 
our domestic species. Their numbers, their breeding, and to some extent their ailments 
are subject to the control of man. The sexes are born in equal numbers, and a large 
proportion of the males are superfluous for breeding purposes. It is obvious, therefore, 
that these superfluous males may be utilized by man just as in the case of domestic 
animals and that the principles involved are those successfully employed by breeders 
of live stock. 



Buii. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Pirate XII. 
















Branded cow, probably 12 years of age, Kitovi Rookery, August 23, 1914. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 79 

REQUIREMENTS OF A RESERVING SYSTEM. 

The requirements of a system of management for the seal herd, therefore, may be 
stated in their simplest form as only two: (1) The preservation of those males needed 
as breeders, and (2) the utilization by man of those not needed as breeders. To put 
these requirements into effect, however, involves the determination of the total number 
of seals, the proportions of various classes, the death rates from natural causes, the 
age at which the surplus should be taken, and the method of marking or branding to 
insure the permanent preservation of the reserves. Some of these matters may be 
decided upon the basis of data now available, but in regard to others it is still necessary 
to estimate. The prime requisite for a well-grounded system of reserving males is a 
better knowledge of the natural rates of increase than we now possess. Liberal allow- 
ances for supposed mortality answer the demands of conservatism in estimating the 
size of the herd and the relative strength of different classes of seals, but, as shown 
in the discussion of the census of 1914, the estimates are largely based on data obtained 
during pelagic sealing when natural conditions were greatly disturbed. From one 
point of view these estimates are entirely safe guides, since they are conservative 
enough to be well within the facts, but with better data within reach there is no justi- 
fication for using them longer than necessary. The percentage of survival to the 
age of 3 years can be determined in a single season by the simple process of setting 
aside a reserve of 3-year-old males and then killing all the remaining animals of that 
class. This should be done in 1915, not only because the information is needed as soon 
as possible, but because the conditions at that time will be particularly favorable. 
In the first place, the total number will be smaller than in later years and therefore 
easier to handle. Moreover, the number of pups bom in 191 2 — the 3-year-olds of 1915 — 
is known from an actual enumeration, while some 5,500 of these pups were given per- 
manent brands in 1912 and a record was kept of the few killed as 2-year-olds in 1914. 
The presence of a certain number of these branded animals, which will be 3-year-olds 
in 1915, will make it possible to determine with great exactness the characteristics of 
the 3-year-olds and would greatly facilitate the restriction of killing and reserving to 
that class. Such favorable conditions will not occur soon again, and even to approxi- 
mate them in 1918 would require a needless repetition of the branding done in 1912. 

CONFINEMENT OF KILLING AND RESERVING TO ONE CLASS. 

Various considerations indicate that at present and at least for a few years to come 
killing and reserving should be mainly confined to one class — the 3-year-olds. In former 
years the seals taken included those of 2, 3, and 4 years of age. The twos and threes 
are of practically the same quality, but the threes being larger, usually command a 
higher price. The fours, although still larger, are not as uniform as to quality, and 
although they still have good values it is evidently poor economy to allow them to 
reach that age before being taken. In the past the market has sometimes shown a 
special demand for the sizes yielded by 2-year-olds, and if it should be found profitable 
in future to cater to such a demand it may be done at least to a limited extent when 
our knowledge of proportions and rates of increase is more definite than at present. In 
general, however, the 3-year-olds yield the skins of highest quality and value, and while 
the herd is comparatively small and methods are being perfected these only should be 
taken. 

84512°— S. Doc. 9S0 63-3 6 



80 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

It is obvious that the breeding reserves should be made annually from a single class 
or generation of seals. They should also be from a class not previously subjected to 
killing and to one as advanced in years as possible, in order that there may be a short 
interval between the age of reservation and the age of harem service. The 3-year-olds 
meet these conditions better than any other class. Furthermore, if 3-year-olds be 
reserved it will then be possible to take any unbranded 4-year-olds with safety, and thus 
the chances that any surplus males may come to maturity will be minimized. 

THE METHOD OF MARKING RESERVES. 

To insure their continued preservation as breeders, it is evident that nothing less 
than a permanent brand will suffice for marking reserves. The temporary mark used 
in previous reserves and made by clipping a patch of hair from the head is objectionable 
because it disappears in a few months, making it impossible to distinguish the reserves 
when they become 4-year-olds and older. If a permanent brand were given the reserves 
for a period of years with some slight distinctive variation from year to year, it would 
soon become possible to determine the relative ages of the stock of harem bulls. The 
brand should be made on the head or neck with a hot iron or some device for producing 
the same result. Brands on the body can not be distinguished readily on the killing 
field, whereas those on the head or neck are easily seen at all times. The practicability 
of branding on the head and neck has been demonstrated by the branding done in 191 2. 
This consisted of branding on the head some 5,500 pups and about 300 3-year-olds. 
They were seen in such numbers in 1 914 as to indicate that the branding was successful. 
Although no exact enumeration of them was made, 5-year-olds with brands were seen 
throughout the season on practically all the rookeries, and when the small number 
originally branded is considered it is evident that practically all survived. Moreover, 
it is plain that if young pups survive a brand on the head there can be no risk in placing 
a similar brand on large vigorous 3-year-olds. Until methods of branding are perfected 
and the natives instructed in them, branding operations should be conducted by someone 
experienced in such work. In fact since natives can not be depended upon and since 
previous branding has been done by persons no longer available, a special employee 
should be detailed for one or more summer seasons with instructions to investigate the 
subject of branding thoroughly and establish methods and apparatus for future use. 

THE PROPORTION OF MALES TO BE RESERVED. 

As shown elsewhere (see p. 49), the ideal number of harem bulls would be such as 
to provide them in the proportion of 1 to 40 bearing cows, while at the same time idle 
bulls should be present in the proportion of 1 to 30 virgin cows or approximately 1 idle 
bull to 4 harem bulls. If these proportions could be maintained, there would never be 
any question as to the sufficiency of males. It is too much to hope that such exact pro- 
portions would in practice be possible, but it is believed that a consistent effort to keep 
as near as possible to these proportions would serve all practical purposes. 

Since reserves must be made at the beginning of the season before the harems are 
formed and before the size of the herd can be determined, the size of the reserve must 
depend upon knowledge of conditions the previous year. Furthermore, since the reserves 
will not enter the stock of bulls for at least three years the size of the reserve in a given 
season will bear some relation to the reserves of the three preceding years. Therefore the 



Buii. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate XIII. 




k 











Pi 







vol 



y.wj 






y :< 



1 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBIL-OF ISLANDS, 1914. 



8l 



size of the reserve should increase from year to year at a rate proportionate to the rate 
of increase of the cows. After a few years of experimentation this rate could be deter- 
mined. To indicate our present knowledge of rates of increase and to serve as a guide 
to be used according to circumstances in making reserves, the following tables have been 
prepared. Although they furnish a forecast of possible future conditions, this is not 
their primary purpose, and it is hoped that they will be regarded less as predictions than 
as demonstrations that whatever the rate of increase the reserve of males should be 
relatively small. 

Table No. i. — Estimated minimum number of females, 1914-1926A 



1916 



1918 



Bearing cows. . . . 

Virgin cows 

Total breeders . . 
Yearling females 
Female pups. . . . 



b 93.250 
17,422 
110,672 
23,068 
46, 625 



97,74o 
19,607 
117,347 
23,312 
48, 870 



103,658 
19,815 

123,473 
24,435 
51,829 



109,053 
20,770 

129,823 
25,9U 
54, 526 



114,660 
22,027 

136,687 
27,263 
57,330 



120,725 
23,174 

143,899 
28, 665 
60, 363 



r926 



Bearing cows .... 

Virgin cows 

Total breeders . . 
Yeariing females . 
Female pups 



127,095 
24,365 

151,468 
30, 182 
63,548 



133,773 
25,655 

159,428 
31,774 
66,887 



140, 8ro 
27,008 

167,818 
33,444 
70, 405 



148,220 
28,427 

176,647 
35,203 
74, no 



156,019 
29,923 

185,942 
37,055 
78,009 



164,228 
31,497 

195,725 
39,005 
82, 114 



172,867 
33,154 

206,021 
41,057 
86, 434 



a Based on assumed mortality of 50 per cent in first year, 15 per cent in second year, 10 per cent in third year, and 12 per cent 
annually thereafter; annual rate of increase of cows 5 per cent to 6 per cent. 
& Based on actual count of pups. 

Table No. 2. — Estimated maximum number of females, 1914-1926.® 



1916 



1918 



Bearing cows 
Virgin cows . . 
Total cows . . 
Female pups . 



93,250 
24,255 
117,505 
46,625 



105, 755 
27,681 

133,436 
52,877 



120,093 
27,975 

148, 068 
60, 046 



133,261 
3r,726 

164, 987 
66, 630 



148, 488 
36,027 

184,515 
74,244 



r66,o64 
39,978 

206,042 
83,032 



1926 



Bearing cows . 
Virgin cows. . 
Total cows . . . 
Female pups . 



185,438 
44,546 

229,984 
92,719 



206,986 

49, 819 
256,805 
103,493 



231,125 

55,631 

286,756 

115,562 



258, 080 

62,095 

320,175 

129,040 



288,158 

69,337 

357,495 

144,079 



321,746 

77,424 

399,170 

160,873 



359,253 

86,447 

445, 700 

179,626 



Based on assumed mortality of 40 per cent in first two years and 10 per cent annually thereafter; annual rate of increase of 
cows n per cent to 12 per cent. 



Table No. 3. — Estimated mean number of bearing and virgin cows, I9i4~i926. a 



Total cows: 

1914 k 114, 088 

1915 I2 3, 215 

1916 133,072 

1917 143, 718 

1918 155,215 

1919 167, 633 

1920 181,043 

Based on a rate of increase of 8 per cent per annum, this being the approximate mean between the rate of the minimum 
estimate and the rate of the maximum estimate. 

b Mean between maximum and minimum estimates. 



Total cows — Continued. 

1921 195, 527 

1922 211,169 

1923 228, 062 

1924 246,307 

1925 266,012 

1926 287,293 



82 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Table No. 4. — Estimated -minimum number of males, 1914-IQ26, under operation of law of 1912a 



Male pups 

Yearlings 

Two years 

Three years 

Four years 

Five years 

Six years 

Seven years 

Bight years and over 

Total bulls six years and over 



46,625 

23,067 

17,422 

13,880 

9,939 

I,6s8 

& 86 

6 86 

1,559 

1,731 



48,870 

23.312 

19,607 

15,680 

8,911 

9,939 

1,658 

86 

1,427 

3,171 



1916 



51,829 
24,435 
19,815 
17,645 
10,620 
8,911 
9.939 
1,658 
1. 313 
13.910 



54.526 
25.914 
20,770 
17.834 
12,489 
10,620 
8,911 
9,939 
2.787 
21,637 



1918 



57,330 
27.263 
22,027 
18,693 
12,667 
12,489 
10,620 
8,911 
12,336 
31,867 



60,363 
28,665 
23.174 
19,824 
4.750 
12,667 
12,489 
10,620 
19.520 
42,629 



1926 



Male pups 

Yearlings 

Two years 

Three years 

Four years 

Five years 

Six years 

Seven years 

Bight years and over 

Total bulls six years and over 



63,548 
30,182 
24.365 
20,856 
4.750 
4.750 
12,667 
12,489 
27,407 
S2.563 



66,887 

31,775 

2S.655 

21,929 

4.7SO 

4.750 

4.750 

12,667 

36,059 

53.476 



70, 405 

33.444 

27,008 

23,090 

4,75° 

4.750 

4.7SO 

4,750 

43.678 

53.178 



74,110 

35.203 

28,427 

24.3°7 

4.7SO 

4,750 

4.750 

4. 750 

42,313 

51,813 



78,009 

37,055 

29.923 

25.585 

4.750 

4,750 

4.750 

4.750 

41,139 

50, 639 



82, 114 
39,005 
31,497 
26,930 
4,7SO 
4.7SO 
4.750 
4.750 
40, 129 
49,629 



86, 434 
41.057 
33.154 
28,347 
4,750 
4,750 
4,750 
4,750 
39,261 
48,761 



1 Based on assumed mortality of 50 per cent in first year, 15 per cent in second, 10 per cent in third, 5 per cent in fourth, and 
14 per cent annually after eighth; with allowance also for food killings of 4,500 3-year-olds in 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1917, and reserves 
of 5,000 per annum after 1917. 

b One-half of idle bulls in 1914. 



Table No. 5. 



-Harem and idle bulls and annual increments required under various estimates at ratio of 
I bull to J5 cows. 





1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


Bulls required for minimum estimate of cows 


3,162 


3,353 


3,528 
a 801 
4,230 

° 1,503 
3,802 

" 1,075 


3,709 
675 
4,714 
1,077 
4, 106 
836 


3,905 
715 
5,272 
1,218 
4,435 
904 


4, in 
7S3 
5,887 
r,353 
4,789 
975 


Bulls required for maximum estimate of cows 


3,357, 


3,812 


Bulls required for mean estimate of cows 




3.260 


3,52o 












1920 


192 1 


1922 


1923 


1924 


1925 


1926 


Bulls required for minimum estimate of 


4,327 
792 

6,571 
1,508 
5,173 
1,05s 


4,555 
834 

7,337 
1,686 
5,586 
1,137 


4,795 
878 

8,193 
1,883 
6,033 
1, 229 


S,°47 
924 

9,148 
2,105 
6,516 
1,328 


5,313 
973 

10, 214 
2,347 
7.037 
1,433 


5,592 
1,023 

11,405 
2,621 
7,600 
1,548 


5,886 
1,077 

12,734 
2,926 
8,208 
1,67a 




Bulls required for maximum estimate of 




Bulls required for mean estimate of cows . 





a On the basis of 3,171 bulls which it is estimated will be present in 1915. 

Table No. 6. — Comparison of results of present law, and of a reserving system based on an estimated mean 

rate of increase of cows. 



1916 



1918 



Seals available for killing and reserving. . 

Reserve under the law 

Reserve under the estimate 

Seals killable under the law 

Seals killable under the estimate 

Prospective revenue under the law 

Prospective revenue under the estimate. 
Loss of revenue under the law 



" 34. S30 
30. 030 
''2,815 
c 4» 500 

S 3I,7I5 

$157,500 
«$932,74S 

$775, 245 



17,645 

13, 145 

975 

c 4, SOO 

16,670 

Sl57,5°o 

$583,450 

$425,950 



17,834 

13,334 

1,055 

c 4» 500 

m,779 

$157,500 

$587, 265 

$429, 765 



18, 693 

5,ooo 

1,137 

13,693 

17,556 

$479, 255 

$614, 460 

$135,205 



19,824 

5,000 

1,229 

14,824 

18, 595 

$518, 840 

$650,825 

$131,985 



o Includes 9,939 5-year-olds, 8,911 4-year-olds, and 15,680 3-year-olds. 

& Includes 1,075 5-year-olds to supply the required increment for 1916, 836 4-year-olds for that of 1917, and 904 3-year-olds for 
that of 1918. 

c Food requirement only. 

d Assuming that surplus 4 and 5 year olds were killed in 1915 and only 3-year-olds thereafter. 

« Allowing an average price of $15 for 5-year-olds and $35 for 3 and 4 year olds. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



83 



Table No. 6. — Comparison of results of present law, and of a reserving system based on an estimated mean 

rate of increase of cows — Continued . 





1920 


192 1 


1922 


1923 


1924 


1925 


1926 


Seals available for killing and reserving. 


20, 856 
5,000 
1,328 

15-856 

19-528 

$554- 96o 

$683,480 

$128,520 


21,929 

5,000 

1-433 

16,929 

20, 496 

$592,515 

$717-395 

$124,880 


23, 090 

5-000 

1-548 

18,090 

21-542 

$633- 150 

$753-970 

$120, 820 


24,307 

5,000 

1,672 

19-307 

22,635 

$675, 745 

$792,225 

$116,480 


25,585 

5,000 

I, 806 

20, 5S5 

23- 779 

$720,475 

$832,265 

$111, 790 


26, 930 

5-000 

I-950 

21,930 

24,980 

$767, 550 

$874, 300 

$106, 750 


28,347 
5- 000 






23-347 

26, 247 

$817- 145 

$918, 645 

$101,500 


Seals killable under the estimate 

Prospective revenue under the law 

Prospective revenue under the estimate. 





Remarks: Approximate annual rate of increase of reserve, 8 per cent. Total revenue under the law, $6,232,135. Total revenue 
under the estimate, $8,941,025. Total prospective loss of revenue, $2,708,890. 

Table No. 7. — Bulls provided by law in excess of requirements of maximum, minimum, and mean estimates 

of cows. 





1914 


191s 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


Minimum number of bulls to be present 
Bulls necessary for maximum estimate o 
Excess over requirements of maximum e 
Bulls necessary for mean estimate of cow 
Excess over requirements of mean estim; 
Bulls necessary for minimum estimate oi 
Excess over requirements of rniriirnnrn e 


under law . . 
f cows 


1,731 

3,357 
° 1,626 

3,260 
° 1,529 

3,162 
"1,431 


3,171 
3,812 
0641 
3,520 
°349 
3,353 
0182 


13, 910 
4,230 
9,680 
3,802 

10, 108 
3,528 

10,382 


21,637 
4,714 

16,923 
4, 106 

17,531 
3>709 

17,928 


31,867 
5,272 

26, 595 
4,435 

27,432 
3,905 

27,962 


42,629 
5,887 

36, 742 
4,789 

37,84o 
4,111 

38,518 


ite 


timate 




1920 


1921 


1922 


1923 


1924 


1925 


1926 


Minimum number of bulls to be present 


52,563 
6,S7i 

45, 992 
5,173 

47,390 
4,327 

48,236 


53,476 
7,337 

46, 139 
5,586 

47,890 
4,555 

48,921 


53,178 
8,193 

44,985 
6,033 

47, 145 
4,795 

48,383 


51,813 
9,148 

42, 665 
6,516 

45, 297 
5,047 

46, 766 


50, 639 
10,214 
40,425 

7>°37 
43,602 

5,3i3 
45,326 


49,629 
11,405 
38, 224 

7,600 
42, 029 

5,592 
44,037 




Bulls necessary for maximum estimate 




Excess over requirements of maximum 




Bulls necessary for mean estimate of 




Excess over requirements of mean esti- 




Bulls necessary for minimum estimate 


5,886 


Excess over requirements of minimum 









a Deficiencies. These will exist in 1915 under any circumstances and merely indicate the possible extent to which 5-year-olds 
might participate in the breeding. 

Tables Nos. i, 2, and 3 give minimum, maximum, and mean estimates of cows from 
1 91 4 to 1926, using as a basis the actual number of cows and pups found in 191 4 and pro- 
gressively applying a very high death rate for the minimum estimate, a low rate for the 
maximum, and striking an approximate average for the mean between the maximum 
and the minimum. Table No. 4 shows primarily the number of young male seals which 
would be present from 191 4 to 1926 under a high death rate and a slow increase of 
breeding cows. The number of bulls which would result from the operation of the law 
of 1912 is then obtained by making allowances for food killings of 4,500 three-year-olds 
per annum until 1917 and for reserves of 5,000 per annum thereafter. 

Table No. 5 shows the total number of bulls which would be necessary to provide 
1 bull to 35 cows under the various estimates. Thus, under the minimum estimate 
there would be a total of 123,473 cows in 1916. Dividing this by 35 gives 3,528, the 
number of bulls to be required in that year. After obtaining the number of bulls required 
for each year, the increment from yef r to year is obtained by allowing for deaths of 14 



84 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

per cent per annum, which is about 2 per cent more than results from natural termination 
of life. Thus if 3,528 bulls were present in 1916, 86 per cent, or 3,034, would be assumed 
to survive to 1917, and therefore an increment of 675 bulls in 1917 would be necessary to 
make the total requirement of 3,709 bulls for that year. From this table it is seen that 
even for the maximum estimate of cows, only 12,734 bulls would be needed in 1926 and 
the annual increments would be very small, not exceeding 2,000 until 1923. Under the 
mean estimate, which is a much more reasonable one, scarcely more than 8,000 bulls 
would be needed in 1926, and the increment would not exceed 1,500 until 1925. There- 
fore, no reserve of over 1,500 would be necessary until 1922. 

In Table No. 6 is shown the result of a reserving system based on the estimates of 
the preceding tables and compared with the results to be expected under present law. 
The results thus indicated are decidedly conservative, and it is highly probable that 
smaller reserves would suffice, but as a guide for action it is desirable that all reasonable 
provision be made that the supply of bulls be ample. Therefore, under the system 
proposed in this table, it is intended that there shall be at least 1 bull to 35 cows. That 
this can not fail to result is evident when it is noted that this ratio is maintained in a 
calculation in which the bulls are assumed to increase at a slower rate than the cows. 
It would be quite fair to state the requirements of the minimum estimate of cows, since 
the males to be killed represent a minimum, but in order to allow for all possible con- 
tingencies the mean estimate of cows is used. The maximum estimate need not be 
considered, except as an indication that under the most extreme and improbable increase 
of cows the number of bulls required would still be small as compared with that provided 
by law. 

In order to establish a rational reserving system at once and to prevent loss of 
revenue, all surplus 5-year-olds and 4-year-olds should be killed in 1915. Thereafter, 
reserves would be made from the 3-year-olds and would increase from year to year at 
the rate of 8 per cent. Referring to Table No. 5, it is seen that an increment of 1,075 
bulls would be needed in 1916, the increment in that year being relatively large owing to 
the present shortage as compared with an ample allowance. This increment will be 
supplied by the 5 -year-olds of 191 5, of which all but 1,075, therefore, might be killed. 
In 1 917 the increment would be 836 to be supplied from the 4-year-olds of 191 5. The 
following year, 1918, would require 904 new bulls, and this determines the size of the 
reserve of 3-year-olds in 1915. In 1916 the reserve of 3 -year-olds would be 975, and 
subsequent reserves would increase at the same rate. The size of the reserve in any 
given season would be 8 per cent larger than the reserve of the previous year or approxi- 
mately 22 per cent of the number of harem and idle bulls which were present the pre- 
ceding year. 

Table No. 6 shows also the estimated revenue to be derived under the proposed 
reserving system in comparison with that which might be expected under present 
law. It is seen that a prospective loss of more than three-fourths of a million dollars 
is indicated for the year 191 5, from which it is apparent that immediate action is 
necessary. The total loss indicated for the 12 years from 1915 to 1926, inclusive, is 
$2,708,890, or an average of $225,742 per annum. Of this loss only 70 per cent, or 
$1,896,223, would be suffered directly by the United States, since 30 per cent, or $812,667, 
would fall upon Great Britain and Japan. These losses are computed on the basis 
of a price of $35 per skin, which is the approximate average price received during 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 85 

the last 10 years. It is, of course, impossible to predict the future state of the fur 
market, but with an annual output of considerably less than 30,000 skins it is more 
likely that this figure would be exceeded than otherwise. 

Table No. 7 makes comparison of the number of bulls of six years and over which 
would be present under the law and the numbers which would be required for the 
various estimates of cows. It is seen from this that on the basis of the mean estimate 
of cows, although there would be a slight deficiency of bulls in 191 5, this would sud- 
denly change to a large excess of over 10,000 in 1916, which would increase to a surplus 
of 47,890 in 1 92 1 and maintain a high excess of over 40,000 until 1926. Even the 
requirements of the maximum estimate are greatly exceeded by those of the law, the 
excess of bulls in this case being 9,680 in 1916, 46,139 in 1921, and 36,027 in 1926. 
If comparison is made with the minimum requirements, the excesses are still greater, 
and it is evident that the operation of the law provides for an excess over any rational 
estimate that could be made. Using the minimum estimate of cows, and therefore 
simply assuming an equal rate of increase of males and females but with allowance 
for the killing permitted by law, it appears that in 1921 there would be 159,428 cows 
and 53,476 bulls, or exactly three cows for each bull. It is apparent also that the 53,476 
bulls of 1 92 1, at the conservative ratio of 1 to 35, would be sufficient for 1,871,660 
cows, or more than seventeen times the number living in 1914. Such an increase of 
cows is, of course, impossible. 

Comparisons need not be multiplied, but it may be repeated that the above tables 
have not been constructed for the purpose of predicting by exact figures the future 
growth of the herd, but for demonstrating that the effects of the law and of a limited 
reserving system, estimated by the same method, are very far apart. It is confidently 
believed that a reserving system based on the principles above outlined might be 
undertaken at once with perfect safety. Although the exact percentages shown by 
the foregoing tables may need alteration as new information is obtained, there is not 
the slightest danger that any shortage of males would result from their adoption for 
immediate practice. It is therefore plain that in 191 5 all males of 3, 4, and 5 years 
of age might be taken with the exception of reserves of approximately 1,100 5-year- 
olds, 850 4-year-olds, and 900 3-year-olds, and that subsequent reserves of 3-year-olds 
need to increase at no greater rate than 8 per cent per annum. 

METHODS OF DRIVING, KILLING, AND CURING SKINS. 

The main methods now practiced are the results of the experience of many years. 
To those studying the matter from a viewpoint free from the restrictions imposed by 
long custom, however, many improvements suggest themselves, mainly in regard to 
details which have been handed down from a period when modern transportation 
methods were unknown and the time of laborers considered of little moment, or those 
which have been demanded by temporary exigencies no longer existent. 

NEED FOR SHORTER DRIVES. 

The seals are forced to carry their skins and meat and most of the butchering is 
done close to the villages, entailing more or less annoyance from the presence of the 
decaying offal. Furthermore, the seals are driven distances varying from one to several 



86 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

miles, involving much delay and the possibility of injury from overheating. Under this 
method no killing can be done on warm or dry days, since the seals can not travel far 
unless rain or heavy dew is present. It sometimes happens that several days will 
pass without weather conditions which permit driving . On many other occasions drives 
have to be abandoned before the killing grounds are reached because of sun or lack of 
moisture. 

The main difficulty opposing the location of killing grounds nearer the rookeries, 
which would do away with much of the necessity of waiting for favorable weather con- 
ditions, is the absence of roads. Although draft animals have been used on St. 
Paul Island for many years, there is only one road — that connecting Northeast Point 
with the village. Teams are sometimes driven to Zapadni, but the road is scarcely 
passable and the journey involves so much discomfort and such flagrant misuse of the 
animals and vehicles that it is seldom undertaken. Reef Rookery, from which most of 
the seals killed during the last few years have been taken, though only a mile from the 
village, is not reached by road nor by trail worthy of the name. The seals are there- 
fore driven by indefinite routes to the killing ground close to the village and thence the 
meat and skins are hauled by wagon to the storehouses. A road would allow the animals 
to be killed nearer the hauling ground, and the expenditure of a little more time and 
energy would permit the transportation of the meat and skins the whole distance by 

wagon. 

KILLING. 

It is believed that the present method of killing is effective and as humane as is 
possible and that no change is necessary or desirable. The seal selected to be killed is 
stunned by a blow on the head from a heavy club and while unconscious is stabbed in 
the heart and bled. The method is thus at least as humane as that followed in slaughter- 
ing domestic animals for food. 

FEMALES AND OLD SEALS IN DRIVES. 

In making drives from the vicinity of the breeding rookeries it sometimes happens 
that a few females are included. These are almost always detected and liberated, but 
occasionally one is accidentally killed. This may happen from the inability of the 
clubber to judge of the sex of the animal when only the head is visible or by the animal's 
receiving a blow intended for another individual. In spite of all care, an occasional 
accident of this kind in killing thousands of seals is unavoidable. During June and 
early July cows are seldom included in the drives, but after the last of July, when the 
vigilance of the harem bulls has become relaxed, the bachelors encroach somewhat on 
the breeding grounds, and if drives are made then a few cows are likely to be included. 
About this time, however, the stagey season begins and so many of the skins become 
worthless that killing is wasteful and should be stopped altogether. July 31 should 
mark the close of the sealing season. 

During June and July in the season of 1914 ten food drives were made on the Pribilof 
Islands. The only cow which appeared in any of these drives was a virgin female acci- 
dentally killed on St. George Island on July 25. After August 1, however, a few cows 
were noted in almost every drive, and though only three were killed (by accident) 
several others succumbed to overheating and trampling. The cows, especially the 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate; XIV. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOE ISLANDS, 1914. 87 

young 2-year-olds, are much less able to withstand the pressure and buffeting of the 
drive than the bachelors, and they are often detected by their distressed appearance as 
compared with the males. The presence of cows in the drives has evidently been" 
regarded as a matter of seriousness in past years, for it is noted with considerable 
regularity in the agents' daily journal or "log." The records are far from complete, 
but the following compilation of them made by naturalist W. T. Hahn is of considerable 
interest : 

Extracts from St. Paul log regarding cows in drives. 
1879. (?) 

October 29, first drive of pups was made from Lukanin, among them many females. Orders were 
given to examine each separately before it was killed. The Government agent believed that formerly 
pups had been selected on account of size — not sex. 

August 28, 2 females killed by accident. 

October 7, 2 females killed by accident. 

October 20, 10 females killed by accident. 

November 13, in a food drive it was found that several — probably 8 or 10 — female seals had been 
killed by accident. 

1897. 

November 12, 2 cows were accidentally killed in a drive. 

1902. 

July 24, 13 cows appeared in a drive at Zapadni. 

July 29, 6 cows in a drive from Zapadni. 

August 9, 18 large and 701 small seals were dismissed from a drive, a large part of them being cows. 

1903. 

July 24, 1 cow dismissed from drive from Zapadni. 
July 27, 2 cows dismissed from drive at N. E. Pt. 
July 29, 1 cow dismissed from drive from Tolstoi. 
July 30, 2 cows dismissed from drive from Reef. 
July 31, 19 cows dismissed from drive from N. E. Pt 

1904. 

July 1, 3 yearlings (?) appeared in the drive atN. E. Pt. A large one was knocked down and proved 
to be a female. It weighed 34 pounds before it was stuck, and the skin weighed 3^6 pounds. 

August 9, 25 cows appeared in a drive from Reef and Gorbatch. A pronounced falling off in the 
number of cows appearing in drives is noted this summer. 

1905. 

June 23, 32 pregnant cows were dismissed from a drive of about 600 seals at N. E. Pt. 

June 30, 8 cows were dismissed from a drive at N. E. Pt. 

July 26, 17 cows were dismissed from a drive at N. E. Pt. 

July 28, 75 cows were dismissed from a drive from Zapadni. 

July 31, 32 cows were dismissed from drive from Reef. 

August io, 97 cows were dismissed from food drive from Reef. 

1906. 

July 28, 4 cows were dismissed from drive from Polovina. 

1907. 
October 31, 40 pups and 116 cows appeared in a food drive from Reef Rookery. 



88 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1908. 

October 20, few cows in the drive from Reef. 
October 29, only a few cows in a drive from Tolstoi. 

1909. 

July 30, 10 cows dismissed from drive from Zapadni. 

July 31,4 cows in drive from Reef and Gorbatch. 

October 20, 34 pups and a large number of cows were dismissed from a food drive from Tolstoi. 

November 1, 45 cows were dismissed from food drive from Reef. 

November 13, 52 cows dismissed from food drive at Northeast Point. 

The great majority of these records relate to dates very late in the season; in fact, 
only three are earlier than July 24. Two of these are June records and undoubtedly 
refer to drives improperly made from a breeding ground. It is evident that with careful 
driving prior to August 1 there is little danger to the females, but that later in the season 
even small food drives are made at considerable risk. If a system of cold storage of 
meat were installed on the islands and the working force of men trained to high efficiency, 
all killing might well be confined to the months of June and July. 

Owing to the fact that few seals have been killed since 1911, a large number of 
five and six year old seals now haul out with the younger bachelors and are included 
in the bands of seals which are driven to the killing grounds. These large seals are 
a source of considerable delay and annoyance and some danger. It is always pos- 
sible to eliminate a part of them, as they travel more slowly than the younger animals 
and may sometimes be left behind. Some, however, refuse to be discarded, and as the 
younger seals show a tendency to rally around the larger ones, it always happens that 
some remain with the drive. Since they travel slowly, the speed of the entire company 
must be accommodated to their gait, and the younger seals are trampled and hampered 
and fatigued by their unwieldy companions. Some of the larger seals which are thus 
included in the drives become very vicious. There are instances of sealers being seri- 
ously injured by the sudden attack of one of these stubborn animals. 

Within the next few years, unless some means are taken to reduce the number of 
these large seals, they will become so abundant that driving will be a matter of difficulty. 

THE SEALING SEASON. 

The season during which commercial killing is possible is short. The bachelors 
are most numerous at the same time that the breeding animals are at their height of 
abundance — from the last of June to the end of August. The so-called "stagey" sea- 
son, when the animal is moulting, begins about the 1st of August, and this reduces 
the effective period of greatest abundance to about one month. In order to take the 
fullest advantage of the short season it is necessary to begin before the time of greatest 
abundance. In past years the bulk of the catch was taken between the middle of June 
and the 20th of July, though a few were killed in late May and a few up to the last of 
July. This very short season necessitates that every possible facility for effective work 
be provided. Even under the best conditions days will frequently occur during which 
it will be impossible to work to advantage, and this emphasizes the need for thorough 
preparation, so that the favorable days may be utilized to the fullest extent. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 89 

SKINNING. 

The seals after being killed are laid in rows far enough apart to allow each skinner. 
to work on his subject without impeding the movements of his neighbor. An incision 
is first made from vent to throat; continuous with this cut, incisions are made around 
the head in front of the ears, and around the base of the hind flippers; a cut is also made 
around each fore flipper close to the body. Beginning at the middle of the ventral cut 
the native then rapidly separates the skin from the body, holding the skin slightly 
stretched and cutting through the subcutaneous layer of blubber with rapid, sweeping 
strokes. Each fore flipper is worked out of the circular cut at its base, and the remainder 
of the skin, after being separated from the body, falls free of head and limbs. The 
result is an ovate pelt with two circular holes where the fore flippers were removed. 

The skin of the head from the ears forward, known as the mask, has customarily 
been left on the carcass and allowed to waste. It is probable that these masks include 
enough good fur to give them a substantial value. They are easily removed and pre- 
served and have sometimes been taken as perquisites by the natives, who have sold them 
for small sums to the natives of Unalaska and to chance visitors to the Pribilofs. The 
value of these masks should be investigated and if it be found profitable, as seems 
likely, they should be regularly taken and marketed. 

A layer of fat from one-fourth to one-half an inch in thickness is left on the skin. 
This is allowed to remain and helps to keep the skin in the moist flexible condition desir- 
able for its proper dressing. The process of skinning requires much skill and care. A 
chance cut greatly reduces the value of the skin; too much blubber may result in 
imperfect curing and consequent loss ; while a dearth of blubber may allow the skin to 
become dry, which interferes with the process of dressing. Some of the more expert of 
the natives are able to skin a seal in two minutes, but the average time is longer. To 
retain the desired degree of skill it is, of course, necessary that the work be kept up. It 
is evident that the suspension of killing during the past few years has already resulted 
in considerable loss of skill, even among the experienced men, while the younger men 
have had practically no opportunity to acquire efficiency. 

CURING OF SKINS. 

The method of curing the skins has been detailed so often that only a brief descrip- 
tion is necessary. After being allowed to cool on the ground so that the animal heat is 
lost, the skins are taken to the salt house where they are numbered and weighed indi- 
vidually, and recorded. The process of weighing consumes a great deal of time and 
should be discontinued, as under Government management it serves no useful purpose. 
A simple system of flesh measurements, as explained beyond, should be substituted. The 
skins are then laid flat, fur side down, and having been carefully spread to guard against 
the persistence of folds or wrinkles, are covered with salt. Successive layers of skins, 
each well salted, are placed in the bins or "kenches" until the entire catch of the day is 
cared for. In this state they are allowed to remain a week or ten days, when they are 
shaken clear of salt and are examined critically to make sure that all parts of the skin have 
been cured. They are then repacked in a compact pile, called the " book," the process be- 
ing similar to that of the original salting, but less salt being used. Here they remain 
until such time as they are to be shinned, when they are tied into bundles, each containing 



90 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

two skins placed flesh to flesh, with a small quantity of salt between to keep the skins 
moist and pliable. Much of the salt now in the bins or kenches has been in use so long 
that it has become so coated with dirt and grease that its solubility and consequent cur- 
ing power is considerably lessened. Unless this old salt can be freed from the foreign 
matter which accompanies it, much of it should be thrown away. It is believed also 
that the substitution of a finer grade of salt, which would be more easily soluble, might 
have advantages. It may be possible to cleanse and reduce to finer grains some of the 
salt now on hand. This amounts to many tons, and by utilizing the native force, the 
expense and trouble of actually replacing it may be avoided. 

NEED OF COMPETENT SUPERVISION. 

It is evident to any one who has observed a gang of the natives at work that they 
need constant and intelligent supervision. Left to themselves they are rather careless 
and indifferent. This is in part due to their natural lack of care for detail, and partly 
to the fact that they have fallen behind in efficiency because of the decline in the amount 
of sealing. It was noticed that in making drives they allowed the seals to travel in 
too large bunches, resulting in an excessive amount of trampling. This fact being 
recognized, a drive made under special direction was managed differently. The seals 
were drawn out into a long line, only a few abreast, and a much longer drive than usual 
was made with decidedly less distress and, according to the natives, in the quickest time 
on record. In some of the illustrations of driving as practiced during the days of exten- 
sive killing, the seals are represented as being driven in this way, and it is probable that 
the carelessness observed in 1914 represents merely a lapse from a method formerly 
recognized as efficient and proper. 

MEASUREMENTS VERSUS WEIGHTS. 

It has long been the custom in selecting seals of the proper age for killing, to rely 
on the weight of the skins as a criterion. Those below a certain weight were considered 
2-year-olds; those above this weight and below another higher weight were considered 
3-year-olds, and so on. The uncertainty of this method, and the impossibility of con- 
fining the killing strictly to certain ages by its application has been amply demonstrated. 
Measuring the skins also has been found to be very unreliable because of the extreme 
flexibility of fresh skins. The large amount of variability in the weight and measure- 
ments both before and after salting has been demonstrated repeatedly. The fact that 
neither the weight nor the measurements of a skin can be taken until it is removed and 
all connection in the minds of the sealers between a particular skin and the seal from 
whose body it was taken is necessarily lost, must always remain an insuperable argument 
against its practicability. It should be stated, moreover, that the confinement of 
killing to particular classes of seals in the past has been due more to the judgment of the 
clubbers than to the system of weighing skins. 

Under complete Government control there can be no temptation to take animals 
below the prescribed age, and the time-consuming system of individual weighing should 
be abandoned. Notes made in 191 4 show that the process of weighing 100 skins takes 
two men about one hour. As before stated, this necessarily has to be done at a time 
when every consideration of economy demands that the skins on hand be placed in 
the salt as quickly as possible, and thus it interferes greatly with the proper utilization 
of the services of the working force. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBILOP ISLANDS, 1914. 91 

The measurements of the seals of a given age are much more uniform than the size 
or weight of the skins. The most important measurement and one that is easily taken 
is the length from the end of the nose to the root of the tail, and the idea was conceived- 
of using this measurement as a standard for judging the age of seals killed. It was 
found entirely practicable to take this measurement for each one of the seals without 
delaying the progress of the work as they were laid out in rows preparatory to skin- 
ning. The most satisfactory method of measuring is by means of calipers similar to those 
employed in measuring timber. The one used experimentally was made by fitting a 
fixed and a movable arm to a rod marked for feet and inches. Even with this impro- 
vised instrument it was found practicable to ascertain the length of the animal easily 
and quickly. As explained elsewhere, a large number of skulls of seals killed in the 
food drives were preserved. Some of these were of seals branded as pups in 1912. 
These specimens of known age, studied in connection with the flesh measurements and 
the weight of the fresh skins, serve as a basis for comparison with the older seals. The 
specimens include also a large series of 3-year-olds and a few older seals. It was thus 
possible to ascertain the approximate size of the seals of different ages. Owing to the 
fact that there is a range of nearly two months in the actual ages of the seals of a given 
class, and because of the range of individual variation, there is a small percentage of 
animals whose age can not be absolutely determined even by careful examination. A 
careful study of the data at hand, however, convinces that this proportion is probably 
not greater than 1 in 50 and may be regarded as negligible. To show how much 
greater is the variation in the weight of the skins of seals of a given age, compared with 
the total length, the data regarding a killing of 61 seals made on August 10 may be 
briefly discussed. These seals were selected with ordinary care by the natives as being 
3-year-olds. Before they were skinned the length of each animal from the tip of the 
nose to the base of the tail was taken with calipers and this measurement was recorded 
against the tag number of the skin. Ten skulls selected at random from the lot were 
saved for examination. Each skin was then weighed before being salted. 

Of the 61 seals, 56 ranged from 44 to 49/4 inches in length. Of these, 8 measured 
44 to 44K inches; 10, from 45 to 45K inches; 12, from 46 to 46^ inches; 8, from 47 to 
47 % inches; 10, from 48 to 48 >£ inches; 8, from 49 to 49 K inches. Of the remaining 
5 seals, 1 (probably a 2-year-old) measured 41 inches, and the skin though fat weighed 
only 5 pounds and 1 ounce; one measured 42^ inches, and 2 measured 43 inches; the 
remaining one measured 51 inches and since its skull was that of a 3-year-old it doubt- 
less represents the maximum size for this class. 

Regarding the weight of the skins of the 56 animals ranging in total length from 
44 to 49K inches, every one of which was certainly a 3-year-old, the lightest weighed 
5 pounds 6% ounces, and the heaviest 9 "pounds \o% ounces. The variation in measure- 
ments was thus only 1 1 per cent of the maximum, while the variation in the weight of 
skins was 44 per cent of the maximum. The 12 skins from animals of practically the 
same length — 46 to 46^ inches — ranged in weight from 5 pounds (>% ounces to 8 pounds 
5% ounces. 

An incident showing how little dependence can be placed on the weight of skins 
as a criterion for age occurred on August 6, when a skin weighing 1 1 pounds 7^ ounces 
was noticed to bear an excessive amount of flesh, probably having been skinned by an 
inexperienced native. After being divested of the superfluous muscle and fat, it was 
found to weigh 9 pounds ii^i ounces, a difference of 1^4 pounds. 



92 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

From a careful study of these and other data, it is believed that the present practice 
of weighing each skin should be discontinued and that a check complying with all reason- 
able requirements may be made by the use on the killing field of calipers by means of 
which the seals may be rapidly measured by the person in charge. Seals between 42 
and 51 inches in body length may be considered as 3-year-olds with but little chance 
for error. If it is found that seals under or over the proper size are being killed, the 
fact can be immediately and graphically impressed on the minds of the working force. 
If desirable, skins of seals departing from the standard may be tagged in the field and 
a record made of the size or weight, but even this does not seem necessary. It is believed 
that the real object — the securing of skins of a uniform class — will be accomplished 
by this method with a minimum of effort, with no waste of valuable time, and with 
much more accuracy than has been possible under the methods formerly in use. 

TAGGING OF SKINS. 

The affixing of a leather tag bearing a serial number to each sealskin as a mark of 
authentication, while it affords a help in recording weights or measurements, does not 
seem necessary. A tag can, of course, be removed at will and either thrown away or 
attached to another skin, and therefore does not certainly identify any particular one. 
Furthermore, it is not practicable to dress the skins without removing the tag. It is 
therefore necessary to replace the leather tag by pricking in the skin a number or symbol 
which can by no process be obliterated or hidden, and which, while the skin remains 
intact, must constitute a distinctive mark. 

In view of these facts it seems that the small advantage gained by the system of 
tagging each skin does not justify the expense and trouble involved, especially if the 
troublesome and misleading process of recording the weight of each skin be abandoned. 

The authentication of the Pribilof Island sealskins will be rendered a matter of 
certainty by pricking on each skin the letters P or G, followed by some number or symbol 
to express the year of capture; e. g., P-15 or G-15, to express St. Paul or St. George, 
19 1 5. This process of pricking can be effected by a single motion with a small hand 
instrument as the skins are counted into the salt house preparatory to curing, and the 
mere recording of the number of skins taken at a killing or during a season can be done 
as readily as under the present laborious system. As before stated, certain skins which 
for any reason require special marks may be tagged as at present. 

PRACTICAL IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED. 

PRESENT UNIMPROVED CONDITION OF PLANT. 

It is evident to anyone considering the matter from an unprejudiced standpoint 
that many improvements are needed in order that the work of sealing, the principal 
business of the islands, may be more effectively accomplished. The Pribilof Islands, 
with their herds of fur seals greatly surpassing in number and value any others in the 
world, constitute a plant equivalent to a private business with an investment of millions 
of dollars. It is plain that such a business deserves to be put on the most efficient 
working basis possible. The need of a larger administrative force on the islands and 
of improvements in some of the methods of the actual work of sealing or of the other 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 93 

industries more or less directly concerned are treated elsewhere. Under the following 
heads will be considered particularly the needed improvements and changes of a more or 
less mechanical nature. 

REFORMS CONTEMPLATED BY LESSEES. 

The desirability of making certain of the improvements recommended in the pres- 
ent report has been repeatedly pointed out in past years, even before the taking over 
of the sealing business by the Government. Various improvements were contemplated 
by the later lessees toward the close of their occupation, but the uncertainty of the 
renewal of the lease prevented active steps for their adoption. Since the abandonment 
of the system of leasing, little progress has been made in improving the plant or in 
instituting useful changes. This has been due partly to the death or serious illness of 
valuable members of the island force and partly to the results of the agitations which 
have beset the general administration of affairs. The prevailing impression that the 
seal herd was reduced to very small and unimportant proportions also contributed to 
inaction. 

BETTER METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION NEEDED. 

One of the most important of the improvements needed is the installation of better 
facilities for transportation. These may be considered under two heads: (1) Facilities 
for traveling and moving supplies on the islands, and (2) the transportation from the 
United States to the islands of the necessary supplies and the moving of the annual 
catch of seal and fox skins to market. 

Roads and trails. — A pressing need is the establishment of better facilities for reach- 
ing Northeast Point from the village. It is believed that the construction of a tramway 
to be traversed by a small gas engine would prove most satisfactory. It would be about 
12 miles in length and would connect some of the most important hauling grounds with 
the village, where the only feasible landing places are located. A spur road about 4 miles 
long would reach Zapadni and would thus allow prompt access to all the important parts 
of the island. In the event of a raid on the rookeries, prompt action would be of the 
highest importance, while the moral effect inspired by a state of preparedness might go 
far in preventing such an occurrence. A wagon road, much of which is deep in sand, 
now connects the extremities of the island, but under present conditions travel by mule 
team is scarcely faster than progress on foot. In the days of active commercial sealing 
nearly one-third of the skins from St. Paul Island were taken at Northeast Point, and 
as the facilities for landing there are very poor, the importance of a ready means of 
hauling the skins to the village, when sealing is resumed, is apparent. The installation 
of a tram road would also provide for the prompt delivery of the sealing force at the scene 
of their labors whenever a killing was planned and the skins secured could be promptly 
transported to the main salt house and there cared for more economically than at North- 
east Point. This road would also serve as an important aid in properly distributing 
seal meat intended for the foxes or for other purposes. 

Whether or not a tram road to Northeast Point is installed, the construction of 
a number of shorter roads on both islands is important. One from the village of St. Paul 
to Reef Rookery is highly desirable, as it would permit killing near the rookery and 
would do away with the killing ground now situated at the edge of the village. Foot 



94 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

trails to the various rookeries near the village may also be laid out at a trifling expense, 
and would allow ready access by foot or horseback for purposes of inspection and study. 

On St. George Island no draft animals are now used, but the construction of a 
road connecting Garden Cove with the village seems important. It often happens that 
a landing can be made at Garden Cove when none other is possible, but this place can 
not be used for the landing of general supplies because of the lack of any means of trans- 
porting the goods to the village, a distance of about 3 miles. Because of this it is some- 
times impossible to land urgently needed merchandise. A foot trail now connects these 
places, and another facilitates travel to Zapadni, 5 miles from the village. There are 
trails to North and East rookeries also, but they need improvement. A road to Staraya 
Artel, at present the most important hauling ground on the island, also seems desirable. 
The seals are now driven to the village, a distance of about 2)4 miles, and a road would 
do away with the necessity for this long drive. 

The importance of a better system of transportation in connection with the prob- 
lem of distributing fox food has been referred to in the account of that animal. The 
fox herds represent very valuable possibilities, and it is important that their needs be 
fully considered. 

Supply ship. — For the transportation of the supplies needed for the Pribilof Islands 
the charter of a ship of approximately 1,000 tons is necessary. For the Homer, which 
has been employed for several seasons on this work, the average cost for the past four 
seasons was a little over $21,000. The cost of the Melville Dollar for the season of 
1914 was a little over $18,000 for 59 days, or slightly over $300 per day. It would seem 
that an annual expenditure of this amount would justify the acquisition by the Bureau 
of Fisheries of a ship to be used chiefly or entirely for the Alaskan service. Two trips 
to the islands should be made ; the first with the opening of navigation and another as late 
in the autumn as the weather conditions allow. 

The landing of cargo on the Pribilof Islands is a matter of considerable difficulty. 
There are no wharves nor even harbors on either island. A ship must lie at some dis- 
tance offshore in such place as affords the best shelter under the prevailing condition 
of the wind. It frequently happens, under stress of weather conditions, that the place 
most favorable for landing cargo has to be abandoned while the ship weathers out the 
storm in some more favorable spot. All cargo must be landed in the native boats 
called bidarras, which are made by stretching a cover of sea-lion skins over a wooden 
framework. In spite of the increasing difficulty of procuring enough skins suitable for 
this purpose, the use of the native boats has been continued. They have the distinct ad- 
vantage of being so constructed that they stand the buffeting against the sides of the 
ship without injury. They can carry only about 5 tons, however, so that the landing of 
the cargo of approximately 800 tons necessitates a great many trips, even with the use 
of two boats. During the season of 1914 the ship was detained 9 days at St. Paul 
and 12 days at St. George at a cost of $300 per day in landing the cargo. It is evi- 
dent, in view both of the growing scarcity of the sea lions and of the objections to the 
use of the skin boats, that some substitute for the latter must soon be found. 

In many places cargoes are landed by means of a car running on a cable which is 
stretched between the anchored ship and a high point on the shore. Steps should be 
taken to ascertain whether this or some other efficient method can not be used on 
the Pribilof Islands. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 95 

COLD-STORAGE PLANTS. 

With the resumption of sealing on a commercial scale and with better methods of 
local transportation, it is believed that the establishment on each island of a small cold- 
storage plant would be a wise and economical project. The great quantities of seal 
meat, above what can be used by the natives and to support the fox herd, should not 
be allowed to go to waste. Cold storage would not only provide for preserving the win- 
ter supply of meat for the natives and for the fox herd, but would allow the surplus to 
be economically utilized for other purposes. There are on the Aleutian Islands and else- 
where in northern Alaska many communities of natives which have been reduced to 
actual want through the cessation of sea-otter hunting, the extirpation or reduction in 
numbers of other animals formerly relied on, or from the desertion of routes of trade 
which formerly brought them employment. The partial or entire support of some of 
these people must eventually be borne by the Government. Unalaska was formerly 
the center of a prosperous sea-otter trade, and later the scene of much activity by reason 
of its being a stopping place for vessels bound for northern Alaska, but is now of little 
importance as a port, and its inhabitants are much reduced in circumstances. To such 
a community a portion of the seal meat which might be wasted on the Pribilofs, only 
200 miles away, would be of the utmost importance. It is also by no means unlikely that 
a market for a quantity of the surplus meat, which is very nourishing and not unpalatable, 
might be found among the poorer classes in the cities of the west coast of the United 
States. 

A further important advantage to be gained by the use of cold storage would be 
found in the possibility of limiting the driving and killing of seals to the season when 
females are not associated with the young males. The accidental and very undesirable 
killing of even a few cows might thus be almost entirely avoided. 

ROOKERY IMPROVEMENTS. 

Some work in improving the ground on several of the breeding rookeries should be 
done. This is a matter which has been frequently discussed, but very little has been 
accomplished. The perpetuation of the series of marked rocks to facilitate the taking 
and recording of observations is also important. 

Marked rocks. — On each of the rookeries is a series of rocks marked by numbers put 
on with white paint, the work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. These rocks serve as 
landmarks for locating and recording the harems and the boundaries of hauling grounds. 
Many- of the numbers, from long exposure to the weather, are becoming obliterated and 
in some cases can no longer be deciphered. Since these marked rocks have figured in 
the records of observations for several years, it is very important that they be repainted 
when necessary. 

Observation stations. — In some of the more crowded rookeries it is very difficult to 
count the harems, and as it will be desirable to count them for several years at least, a 
few observation stands should be built. They may be towers of rock a few feet in 
height, and in some cases will need to be connected with the rear of the occupied space 
by lanes protected by walls of rock which afford a safe path through the rookery mass. 
At present Reef Rookery is most in need of these observation towers. In 1914 it was 
84512°— S. Doc. 980, 63-3 7 



96 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

difficult to count the harems there, and if the breeding area is increased in future years, 
as is almost certain, it will be impossible to make an accurate count without their aid. 
An inclosed station on Gorbatch for the accommodation of visitors to the islands also 
would serve a useful purpose, since it is now difficult to carry out the regulations in 
regard to the inspection of the seals by persons landing on the islands for a few hours 
and desiring to see the seals. 

Improvement of ground. — Although the breeding ground preferred by the seals 
is decidedly uneven in character, some of the occupied areas are so rough that the cows 
and pups are exposed to considerable discomfort and danger. Small hollows between 
bowlders afford refuge to the pups and protect them from trampling, but where deep 
cavities occur pups and occasionally cows may be unable to escape from them and 
may perish. These cavities are a source of great annoyance also in the work of count- 
ing the pups, as it frequently happens that several dozen must be pulled bodily from 
a cavern before any idea of their number can be gained. Certain stretches on Lukanin, 
Gorbatch, and Tolstoi are particularly troublesome. 

By blocking the entrances to the larger cavities and by filling the smaller ones with 
loose bowlders the rookery grounds can be greatly improved. A few days' work with 
a gang of men would give good results. It would be advisable to do as much of this work 
as possible in the spring before the arrival of the bulls in order that the animals of that 
season might benefit by the improvement. 

On Polovina Rookery there are a number of caves in the soft bank, evidently formed 
by the action of the waves during the storms of winter, which become packed with the 
little pups. Nearly a hundred were taken from one of these caves during the pup count- 
ing of 1914. As these soft banks are constantly crumbling, there is always danger of 
some of the little creatures being buried by the slipping of a part of the bank. These places 
should be inspected each spring, and such portions of the bank as seem dangerous should 
be cut down. The likelihood of having to pave sandy areas which in the past have been 
affected with Uncinaria should not be lost sight of. While no evidence of this pest was 
found in 1914, it may recur at any time. Areas which were especially favorable to the 
spread of the plague have been improved from time to time by being partially covered 
with rock, and this treatment appears to have borne good results. Close watch should 
be kept, and at the first evidence of the recurrence of the pest the affected places should 
be partially or completely paved. The shrinking of the rookery areas in late years has 
naturally led to the abandonment of some of these affected spots, but with the increase 
of the herd they will doubtless be reoccupied and may again become serious sources of 
mortality. 

THE EFFECT OF EXISTING LAWS. 

Among the matters to which special attention was directed in the instructions for 
the investigation of 1914 was "The strength of the surplus male life in relation to the 
close-time provisions of existing law and to treaty obligations." 

The most recent law affecting the seal herd, and the one under which it is chiefly 
administered, became effective August 24, 1912. It provides that all killing of fur 
seals be suspended for a period of five years, except the limited number of male seals 
needed as food for the natives. It further provides that not less than 5,000 males 
shall be reserved for breeding in each year after the resumption of killing until 1926, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 97 

and thus prescribes by exact figures the nature of the management of the herd for a 
period of 14 years, or until the expiration of the international agreement by which 
pelagic sealing was stopped. The text of the law relating to these important provisions 
is as follows : 

Sec. 11. That from and after the approval of this act all killing of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands, 
or anywhere within the jurisdiction of the United States in Alaska, shall be suspended for a period 
of five years, and shall be, and is hereby, declared to be unlawful; and all punishments and penalties 
heretofore enacted for the illegal killing of fur seals shall be applicable and inflicted upon offenders 
under this section: Provided, That this prohibition shall not apply to the annual killing on the Pribilof 
Islands of such male seals as are needed to supply food, clothing, and boat skins for the natives on the 
islands, as is provided for in article eleven of said convention; the skins of all seals so used for food 
shall be preserved and annually sold by the Government, and proceeds of such annual sales shall be 
covered into the Treasury of the United States: Provided further, That at the expiration of the said 
five years' suspension of all commercial killing as above provided, said killing may be resumed under 
authority of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor: Provided, however, That the number of three-year- 
old males selected from among the finest and most perfect seals of that age found on the hauling grounds 
to be reserved for breeding purposes, in each year ending August first, shall not be fewer than the fol- 
lowing: In nineteen hundred and seventeen, and in each year thereafter until nineteen hundred and 
twenty -six, inclusive, five thousand. 

THE LAW EFFECTIVE FOR LONGER THAN INTENDED. 

This law, which was introduced in the House of Representatives on February 15, 
1912, was pending during the sealing season of 1912, and, in the expectation of its pas- 
sage at an early date, operations were limited until its final provisions should become 
known. This did not occur until the season had closed, the result being that although 
the law was not in force during that season the effect was the same, for only 3,764 seals 
were killed, a number scarcely sufficient to supply meat for the natives. Thus the 
close-time provision of the law was in effect increased from five to six years, and in 
actual practice the law will operate one year in excess of its intent. 

AS A BENEFICIAL MEASURE THE LAW HAS SERVED ITS PURPOSE. 

At the present time, therefore, commercial killing has been suspended for a period 
of three seasons, though the law has actually been on the statute books but two years. 
What has been accomplished in these three seasons is of the highest importance. The 
law is entitled "An act to give effect to the convention between the Governments of 
the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Russia for the preservation and protec- 
tion of the fur seals and sea otter which frequent the waters of the North Pacific Ocean, 
concluded at Washington July seventh, nineteen hundred and eleven." Obviously it 
was a conservation measure, and now, after three years, it may be inquired how far 
its intent has been fulfilled. 

In 1 91 2, when the law was under discussion, conditions were very different from 
those at present. At that time pelagic sealing had just been stopped, the herd was at 
a low ebb, male life was greatly reduced, the real or supposed evils of former systems 
of management were fresh in mind, and conflicting opinions were freely expressed as 
to the fate of the seals. The ultimate needs of the herd were obscured by the compli- 
cated and special nature of the subject and by its long, involved history, in which 
almost all important points were rendered elusive by the uncertain factors contributed 
by pelagic sealing. Under these circumstances it was inevitable that the law as finally 



98 BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

passed would be something of a compromise except as to its main feature, which was that 
the seals receive immediate and practically unqualified protection. 

In 191 4, after three years without pelagic sealing and without commercial killing 
on land, the herd is found to be in flourishing condition, the stock of breeding females 
appreciably increased, an ample supply of breeding males assured, and a large surplus 
of males immediately impending. To produce such conditions was doubtless the main 
object of the law, and it is evident that as a purely protective measure the law up to 
the present time has been successful and beneficial. This improvement in the herd, 
however, seems to indicate that at least certain provisions of the law no longer accord 
with its intent. 

EVILS OF LEASING SYSTEM NOT POSSIBLE UNDER GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT. 

The herd is now beyond the danger point, and with full governmental control, 
protection of the seals and conservative management would be assured without special 
restrictions. Departmental officers having discretionary power, and even agents on the 
islands, could have no possible incentive for furthering any interests other than those 
of the Government itself. A law restricting killing does not guard against the cupidity 
of any private individual or any Government employee, because under the new system 
no one can gain by excessive killing. Under private leasing, whether or not irregular- 
ities existed, it is conceivable that the system might have offered temptation to dishonest 
parties; but under full governmental administration circumstances can scarcely be 
imagined in which individual officers could derive personal profit at the expense of the 
Government's interest. Detailed regulations influenced by real or supposed injurious 
practices of the past, therefore, are entirely unnecessary at present. The general laws 
against official misconduct cover practically every possible contingency. 

FLEXIBLE REGULATIONS DESIRABLE. 

The nature of sealing as a business is such that restrictions of a fixed and absolute 
character are highly impractical. Living animals subject to the ravages of disease, 
to the inroads of natural enemies, to the vicissitudes of an unusually stressful existence, 
and to the varying results of peculiar breeding habits can not be successfully managed 
under inflexible rules laid down long in advance. The establishment of close seasons 
for game animals, especially those of the deer family, is quite a different matter from the 
restriction of killing of fur seals. A comparison of fur seals with American elk, caribou, 
or prong-horned antelope in this connection would scarcely be made by any one having 
first-hand knowledge of the nature and habits of the seals as well as of the game animals. 
If all the elk, caribou, or antelope living came annually to a Government reservation 
where they could be enumerated and proportioned as to age and sex, there would be no 
reason to prohibit the killing of males not needed as breeders. 

Among wild animals the fur seal is unique in many respects. Although not actually 
under domestication, it is by nature and habits almost strictly comparable to a domestic 
animal, and the principles governing its management should unquestionably be those 
employed by breeders of live stock. Rigid rules of procedure, therefore, are as inadvis- 
able in the case of the seals as they would be with horses, cattle, or sheep. So far as 
possible, regulations should be sufficiently elastic to take advantage of conditions as they 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 99 

arise. The number of males which should be killed or reserved can not, in the nature of 
the case, be absolute. It is not and never can be a fixed number, and the only possible 
way in which it can be stated in advance is in relative terms. That is, the number to be 
killed or to be reserved in any given season depends upon the number that are present 
in that season and upon the relation which the number of males of certain ages bears to 
the number of females. With pelagic sealing abolished, these numbers and proportions 
can be determined with all reasonable accuracy. Whether the herd be large or small, 
diminishing or progressing, good management demands discretionary power in the 
hands of responsible officers in order that action may be governed by circumstances. 
Inflexible rules applied to living animals are dangerous under any circumstances and in 
the case of the seals are no more necessary now than they will ever be. The relative 
proportions of males and females should be the same in a herd of a thousand seals as in 
one of a hundred thousand or a million, and in any case it is wholly a matter of propor- 
tions, not of fixed numbers. 

RESERVES UNDULY LARGE. 

The subject of reserving males for breeding has received careful consideration in 
the present report. It has been recognized that the number of bulls in recent years may 
have been inadequate, and it has been concluded that in the future a much larger supply 
would be desirable, even to the point of having somewhat more than the requirements 
of a most conservative ratio of males to females. But the reserves of the law go far 
beyond the needs determined by a careful investigation of present conditions. 

Aside from the close-time provision of existing law, which in itself provides more 
males than necessary, the subsequent reserves of 5,000 per annum are excessive. After 
thorough and unprejudiced investigation it is found impossible by argument or calcu- 
lation to justify such large reserves. As shown elsewhere (p. 82), the close-time and the 
later reserves will produce an enormous supply of males unwarranted by any policy, 
unless it be one of permanent cessation of killing for sentimental reasons. Such a policy 
is, of course, impractical, for it would mean a return to pelagic sealing, which is brutal in 
the extreme, whereas land killing is quite as humane as the killing of domestic animals 
for food. This great excess of males would doubtless cause some increased fighting and 
consequent mortality detrimental to the herd, but laying this aside as of minor impor- 
tance, it is evident that a great waste is involved. The money loss alone during the 
period affected promises to be very large, not less than $2,700,000 by most conservative 
estimates. 

It should be stated that if these reserves were liberal merely to provide for emer- 
gencies or errors in estimates, no objection to them could be urged. But they are much 
more than liberal, since they provide not twice as many but several times as many as a 
very conservative ratio of males to females would require. In the end it is believed they 
would produce a stock of some 50,000 bulls where less than 10,000 would be a liberal 
allowance. That is, if bulls and cows increase at the same rate, the law provides for a 
herd in 192 1 in which there would be one bull for every three cows, instead of one to forty, 
the a reasonable ratio. 



IOO BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

MATTERS FOR SPECIAL DISCRETIONARY POWER. 

Emergency action. — The concurrent action of the law of 191 2 and the previous law 
of April 2i, 1 9 10, places such restrictions on the killing of seals that even in cases of 
urgent necessity action could not legally be taken. 

The clauses bearing particularly upon this matter are as follows : 

ACT OF APRIL 21, I9I0. 

Sec. 6. That section nineteen hundred and sixty of the Revised Statutes of the United S tat es 
and section one hundred and seventy -seven of the act of March third, eighteen hundred and ninety- 
nine be amended to read as follows: 

It shall be unlawful to kill any fur seal upon the Pribilof Islands, or in the waters adjacent thereto, 
except under the authority of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, and it shall be unlawful to kill 
such seals by the use of firearms or by other means tending to drive the seals away from those islands; 
but the natives of the islands shall have the privilege of killing such young seals as may be necessary 
for their own food and clothing, and also such old seals as may be required for their own clothing and for 
the manufacture of boats for their own use; and the killing in such cases shall be limited and controlled 
by such regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 

Sec. 7. That section nineteen hundred and sixty -one of the Revised Statutes of the United States 
and section one hundred and seventy-eight of the act of March third, eighteen hundred and ninety- 
nine, be amended to read as follows: 

It shall be unlawful to kill any female seal or any seal less than one year old at any season of the 
year, except as above provided; and it shall also be unlawful to kill any seal in the waters adjacent to 
the Pribilof Islands, or on the beaches, cliffs, or rocks where they haul up from the sea to remain; and 
every person who violates the provisions of this or the preceding section shall be punished for each 
offense by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than one thousand dollars or by impris- 
onment not more than six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment; and all vessels, their tackle, 
apparel, and furniture, whose crews are found engaged in the violation of either this or the preceding 
section shall be forfeited to the United States. 

ACT OP AUGUST 24, 1012. 

Sec. 11. That from and after the approval of this act all killing of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands, 
or anywhere within the jurisdiction of the United States in Alaska, shall be suspended for a period of 
five years, and shall be, and is hereby, declared to be unlawful; and all punishments and penalties 
heretofore enacted for the illegal killing of fur seals shall be applicable and inflicted upon offenders 
under this section: Provided, That this prohibition shall not apply to the annual killing on the Pribilof 
Islands of such male seals as are needed to supply food, clothing, and boat skins for the natives on the 
islands, as is provided for in article eleven of said convention ; * * * . 

From this it appears that in the event of a sudden epidemic of disease or in any 
other emergency requiring immediate and perhaps drastic measures, no officer would 
have authority to kill female seals. The provision against the use of firearms has a 
similar effect since conditions may arise making it advisable to kill certain animals, as 
vicious old bulls, which can not be put to death by the usual methods. In addition, 
ordinary humane action in the case of wounded or injured seals is prohibited. Pups or 
cows may be found mortally wounded by the bulls or by falling rocks, but under the law 
they can not be put out of their misery and must be allowed to surfer a lingering death. 
Several cases of this kind occurred in the season of 1914. Under present conditions 
there are no advantages gained by these provisions of the law. The agents are not and 
can not be under any temptation to permit unnecessary killing of females or young, 
but even if they should be, the matter could be governed by regulations limiting regu- 
lar killings to seals from the hauling grounds and to the season ending July 31. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. IOI 

Annual sale of skins. — In section 11 of the law of 1912 it is provided that "the 
skins of all seals so used for food shall be preserved and annually sold by the Govern- 
ment." A further provision of the same section relating to the disposition of skins 
obtained from commercial killings and from the Governments of Great Britain and 
Japan states that "all skins which are or shall become the property of the United States 
from any source whatsoever shall be sold by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor 
in such market, at such times, and in such manner as he may deem most advantageous." 
Thus at least food skins taken during the five-year period of restricted killing are to 
be sold annually, and by construing the first provision of the law as governing the 
second, the same course will be necessary with all skins taken in the future. 

Obviously it would be to the interest of the government to be able to take advan- 
tage of the best market conditions in all cases. A temporary depression, such as that 
caused by the European war, would make it advisable to postpone the sale to a more 
favorable date, but under the present laws this can not be done without special authority 
from Congress. The sale has usually been conducted in December or January. The 
time between the shipment of the skins and the sale may be so short that conditions 
are likely to arise making it desirable to postpone the sale for several months. Even 
slightly depressed market conditions during the restricted period allowed for the sale 
might cause serious loss. 

Specimens for scientific purposes. — The laws make no provision for the preservation 
of specimens of the fur seal for scientific investigation or for exhibition in public 
museums. It is altogether probable that in the future management of the herd prac- 
tical problems will arise which can not be settled except by research involving the 
killing of certain seals, including some proportion of females and young. Such problems 
may relate to breeding and reproduction, to ascertaining the cause of disease," or to 
various other matters. Although of technical nature, they may be of great economic 
importance, and failure to provide for them may result in large financial loss. During 
the investigation of 1914, the legal prohibition against killing females proved embar- 
rassing, and certain matters which otherwise might have received attention were there- 
fore disregarded. The preservation of specimens of the fur seal in public museums is 
surely worthy of consideration because of the educational service to the public. Many 
of our museums have very few or no specimens of the fur seal, and even in the United 
States National Museum, where such an important and interesting animal should be 
well represented, the specimens are old and imperfect. Under the law, even the skins 
of seals that have died from natural causes and which may have only trifling money 
value, must be sold like any others. 

It is plain, therefore, that a provision which would place the killing of seals for 
scientific or educational purposes within the discretion of a responsible official would 
be very desirable. 

EFFECT OF RESTRICTED SEALING ON THE FOX HERD. 

The blue foxes of the Pribilof Islands constitute an important and valuable asset. 
Undue restriction of sealing not only causes a reduced revenue from the seals but 

a This was found necessary in December, 1914, when a joint resolution to postpone the sale of food skins for that season was 
introduced in Congress. Such action would have been unnecessary if the time of sale had beeu within the discretion of a respon- 
sible official. 



102 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

involves an additional loss through its effect on the foxes. As shown in the special 
discussion (p. 106), the decline of the output of fox skins has been coincident with 
the reduction of seal killing and is due to the lack of a sufficient supply of seal carcasses 
upon which the foxes are dependent. This decline has progressed more rapidly since 
the limitation of sealing imposed by the law of 191 2 until at the present time the fox 
industry is in a highly undesirable condition, the animals being greatly reduced in 
number and the stock deteriorated in quality and vigor. The resumption of sealing 
on a larger scale would provide means for the upbuilding of the fox herd; otherwise 
prompt measures of some other sort will be necessary. The main problem is one of food 
supply, and owing to the isolation of the islands and the poor facilities for communi- 
cation the securing of fox food other than seal meat is beset with difficulties. Therefore 
it is desirable that seal meat be provided for them at the earliest possible time; that 
is, as soon as the condition of the seal herd will warrant it. That this time has already 
arrived is evident from the general results of the investigation of 1914, and while no 
consideration of the foxes should be permitted to jeopardize the sealing interests it is 
to be remembered that with the good condition of the seals assured the foxes are 
capable of producing a revenue not to be ignored. 

In former years, without any attempt at careful management, more than 1,000 
fox skins were taken annually on St. George Island alone. Such an output, at the 
prices prevailing in recent years, would have realized a revenue of $40,000 to $50,000 
per annum. That an equally large or a larger revenue may be obtained in the future 
is scarcely to be doubted if proper measures be taken now. 

THE TREATY. 

The treaty effective December 15, 1911, between the United States, Great Britain, 
Japan, and Russia is essentially an agreement by which the foreign nations relinquish 
their right to take seals on the high seas in exchange for a share in land sealing to be 
conducted by the United States. The main assumption of the treaty is that the decline 
of the herd has been caused by pelagic sealing and not by land sealing, a conclusion 
formed and agreed upon by the joint conference of British and American experts after 
the investigation of 1896-97. The Governments of Great Britain and Japan paid 
large sums to retire their sealing fleets, obviously expecting to be reimbursed in the 
near future by their 15 per cent share of land sealing. The United States is granted 
the right to suspend land sealing under two conditions: (1) To protect and preserve 
the seal herd, and (2) to increase its number. The statements of the treaty in regard 
to these provisions (Sen. Doc. No. 75, 62d Cong., 1st Sess.) are as follows: 

Art. X, page 7, lines 15-22: Provided, however, That nothing herein contained shall restrict the 
right of the United States at any time and from time to time to suspend altogether the taking of 
sealskins on such islands or shores subject to its jurisdiction, and to impose such restrictions and 
regulations upon the total number of skins to be taken in any season and the manner and times and 
places of taking them as may seem necessary to protect and preserve the seal herd or to increase its number. 

Art. XI, page 8, lines 25-32: If, however, the total number of seals frequenting the United States 
islands in any year falls below one hundred thousand (100,000), enumerated by official count, then 
all killing, excepting the inconsiderable supply necessary for the support of the natives as above 
noted, may be suspended without allowance of skins or payment of money equivalent until the number 
of such seals again exceeds one hundred thousand (100,000) enumerated in like manner. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. IO3 

Without attempting to interpret these sections of the treaty, it may be stated 
that a number of American experts and officials, both scientific and legal, have expressed 
the opinion that the right to suspend land sealing depends upon the need of the herd 
for protection and that unless this need can be demonstrated land sealing should go 
on under no limitation except that required for the preservation and growth of the 
herd. If this opinion be sound, the important question is, Does the herd need pro- 
tection to the extent of continued suspension of land killing? Even assuming to the 
full that the herd did need protection when the law of 1912 was enacted, this nevertheless 
does not relieve us from the obligation of demonstrating that it still needs it now after 
three seasons without commercial sealing. No such necessity can be demonstrated. 
The condition of the seal herd in 1914, as set forth in this report, is such that resumption 
of commercial sealing on a moderate scale in 191 5 could be undertaken with confidence 
that the protection and growth of the herd would not be jeopardized in the slightest 
degree. The inference is clear, therefore, that unless sealing be resumed agitation will 
be continued and the integrity of a most desirable treaty endangered. 

EARLY SOLUTION OF PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IMPORTANT. 

At the time the law of 191 2 was enacted, there were certain important practical 
problems regarding the seals which hitherto had remained unsolved owing to the 
existence of pelagic sealing. The treaty of 191 1 had abolished this form of sealing, 
opening the way for the solution of these problems. The law, however, was and still is 
an effectual bar to the elucidation of these vital matters. The principal points to be 
determined as prerequisites of sound and systematic management relate to distinguishing 
seals of different ages and to ascertaining the number or proportion of males .that 
naturally survive to the age of 3 years, these forming the class from which both killings 
and breeding reserves are drawn. As shown elsewhere, the conditions for obtaining 
this information will be particularly favorable in 1 9 1 5 . The number of pups born in 1 9 1 2 
is known, and certain of these which will appear as 3-year-olds in 1915 carry permanent 
brands which will greatly facilitate the confining of killing and reserving to that class. 
Therefore, it would be possible to determine fully the characteristics of the 3-year-olds 
as a standard for future use; and by setting aside a liberal breeding reserve and killing 
the remainder the total stock remaining from the pups born in 191 2 would be learned. 
Such favorable conditions could not be obtained again until 1918 and then only by 
repeating in 191 5 the branding of pups which was carried out at considerable labor and 
expense in 1912. Therefore it is highly desirable that the work be done in 1915. 

GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF EFFICIENCY NECESSARY. 

The long-continued ravages of pelagic sealing and the publicity which they gained 
during the protracted agitation against it, combined with charges of excessive land 
killing and the undisputed fact that the seal herd was reduced to a fraction of its former 
size, produced a general impression that the number of seals remaining was only a mere 
handful, or in fact that the herd was on the very verge of extinction. The total sus- 
pension of commercial killing by the law of 191 2 has added to this impression and cir- 
cumstances have caused an interruption and abandonment of continuous policies, a 
reduced and partly temporary personnel, and general conditions favoring inaction only 



104 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

justifiable on the assumption that since there are few seals and but little killing, the 
requirements of the situation must be few and unimportant. The actual conditions, 
as disclosed by the investigation of 1914, are quite the contrary. Never during American 
ownership has the situation demanded more careful consideration, more numerous and 
capable employees, or more liberal financial support. 

The seal herd is small only by comparison. Actually it is large and growing rapidly. 
The business of managing it will involve the handling of a product yielding an annual 
income equivalent to that of a business enterprise with an investment of at least ten 
millions of dollars. Extensive preparation and careful study are necessary to avoid 
large financial loss not only at present but in the future. The native men who do the 
sealing are losing their former efficiency. The younger ones, of whom much will be 
required in the future, are gaining but little experience and training and it is plainly 
evident that a sudden resumption of killing on a large scale a few years hence would 
find them unequal to the task. The duties and responsibilities of the agents and officials 
resident on the islands are of a special nature and they too need time and opportunity 
to grow with the business. Suitable men to fill these positions can not be had for the 
asking but must be selected with care and trained by experience. Men with special 
training also are needed for special purposes — to plan and execute general improvements, 
to build roads and trails, to provide better housing, sanitation, and education for the 300 
natives of the islands, to study the possibilities of new industries and economies, the 
utilization of by-products, and the development of general efficiency— in short, to provide 
means by which the Pribilof Islands shall be a source of profit, satisfaction, and pride to 
the Government. 

Failure to undertake many needed reforms and to develop efficient and systematic 
management is to a considerable extent due to the continued suspension of land sealing 
and it requires no lengthy argument to show that the sooner the Government resumes 
land sealing, the principal business of the islands, the sooner will it be possible to institute 
reforms of all kinds and to provide a basis for permanent efficiency. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Conclusions regarding the effect of existing laws, especially the law of 191 2, as seen 
in the light of conditions in 1914, may be summarized as follows: 

(1) The law effects a suspension of sealing for six years instead of five and sealing 
has now been restricted for three years. 

(2) The benefits of the law as a protective measure have now been attained, the 
seal herd being past the danger point. 

(3) The law guards almost wholly against practices which may have been possible 
under the leasing system, but which can not occur under full Government management. 

(4) The law is a rigid measure imposing fixed restrictions on the management of 
living animals subject to natural vicissitudes, whereas in the nature of the case reason- 
able elasticity is required to meet conditions as they arise. 

(5) Under the law, no one has discretion to permit the killing of seals in emergencies 
or exceptional circumstances to prevent the spread of disease, to avoid suffering, to 
provide material for scientific study, or to obtain specimens for museums and other 
educational institutions. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 105 

(6) By provision for the annual sale of skins, the law makes it difficult to regulate 
the time of the sale to market conditions. Moreover, a small output of skins during 
the suspension of commercial sealing may cause the demand for them to diminish, and a 
sudden large supply upon the resumption of sealing is likely to meet with reduced prices. 

(7) The blue fox industry, capable of yielding $50,000 or more per annum, is 
reduced to small proportions through lack of seal meat for food. 

(8) The continued suspension of sealing and the subsequent reserves provided by 
law will create a large excess of males, and failure to take and market their skins at the 
proper time will cause an estimated minimum loss of $2,700,000. 

(9) A part of this loss falls upon Great Britain and Japan , to each of which we are 
by treaty bound to deliver 15 per cent of the annual take under commercial sealing. 

(10) The suspension of sealing prevents the immediate determination of the pro- 
portion of seals which naturally survive to killable age, a most vexed and vital matter, 
which must be settled before any explicit regulations based on sound principles can be 
formulated. 

(11) The development of general efficiency for the future managment of a very 
large and profitable business, the training of both white and native employees, the 
installation of modern methods, and the numerous preparations necessary for adapta- 
tion to new conditions are largely dependent upon the resumption of active sealing at 
the earliest possible date. 

(12) The law now offers no compensations for its many disadvantages. It has 
served a purpose as a remedy for a shortage of male life, but though a shortage existed 
when the law was enacted it does not now and will not in the future, whether the law be 
in effect or not. 

THE FOXES. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The foxes of the Pribilof Islands belong to a group ordinarily known from their 
circumpolar habitat as arctic foxes and considered as forming a genus distinct from 
other foxes. The animals of these islands have become slightly differentiated by long 
insular isolation from their relatives inhabiting the other parts of the north, and bear 
the name Alopex pribilofensis (Merriam). 

The so-called white and blue foxes are not different species but merely represent 
two color phases of the same animal, the white being the winter coat of the normal 
phase, which in summer is characterized by a brown back and shoulders and tawny 
sides. The blue fox is the abnormal dark color phase, sooty gray in summer, and bluish 
gray in winter. This sooty phase is found practically throughout the range of the animal, 
at least in America, but is usually much less abundant than the ordinary phase and in 
some sections is so rare as to be practically unknown. 

On the Pribilof Islands, however, the sooty phase so outnumbers the ordinary phase 
as to be practically the normal state. According to old accounts, blue foxes only were 
found on the islands when they were first discovered, and the white ones came (pre- 
sumably on the ice) a few winters afterwards. This is probably an error, as it is much 
more likely that the white were present at first but were overlooked until their white 
winter condition forced itself on the attention of the discoverers. It is undoubtedly 
true, however, that foxes do occasionally reach the islands from the north on the pack ice, 



106 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

and as these would probably come from regions where the normal phase predominates 
it is likely that the majority of such immigrants would be white. Such infrequent 
arrivals, however, can have had but little effect of any kind on the Pribilof herd within 
historic times. 

Because of the beauty and rarity of the blue fox its value has always been much 
greater than that of the white. Until very recent years the white skins were worth very 
little, but the growing scarcity of all kinds of fur has resulted lately in a great increase 
in their value. 

During the continuance of the leasing system the companies paid to the natives a 
certain price for taking the skins and sold them in the best markets, the Government 
deriving no benefit from the transaction. Since the discontinuance of this system in 
1910 the same methods have been followed by the Government, which now derives a 
revenue from the animals. The gross proceeds of the catch of the winter of 1910, 371 
blue and 20 white skins, were $16,563.55; the expenses of marketing were $1,466.92. 
The net price received was thus about $40 each for the blue skins and $6 each for the 
white. Of the skins taken in 1 911, 12 blues netted over $50 each, and the whites about 
$13 each, while an exceptionally fine lot of 31 blue fox skins brought a gross return of $131 
each. Of those taken in 1912, 13 brought slightly less on the average, a little under $40 
each for the blue and about $1 1 each for the white. One lot of 6 fine blue skins brought 
an average gross price of $158 each. The net proceeds to the Government from the sale 
of fox skins for 1910-11 were $15,096.58; for 1911-12, $20,505.17; and for 1912-13, 
about $16,000. It is plain that an industry which even in its present depleted state has 
yielded this revenue deserves to be brought up to a higher state of efficiency. 

FORMER ABUNDANCE. 

According to the old records, foxes were present on the Pribilof Islands when they 
were first visited, but regarding their numbers in early times we know very little. During 
the period from 1842 to i860, inclusive, the Russian- American Co. took from the Pribilof s 
an average annual catch of 1,829 foxes; more than two-thirds of these came from St. 
George. From 1861 to 1870 the complete figures are not available. From 1871 to 1890 
a total of 24,792 skins was taken from both islands; 20,412 of these came from St. George, 
an annual average of 1 ,020 skins. During all this time practically no attention was paid 
to the care of the foxes, which subsisted mainly on the birds and on the bodies of the 
seals which had been left on the killing fields. 

DECLINE FROM LACK OF FOOD. 

About 1890 the number of foxes begun to show a marked diminution, undoubtedly 
due to the smaller quota of seals killed. Within the next few years, during the modus 
vivendi, the catch of seals being limited to the food requirements of the human inhabit- 
ants, the foxes suffered further reduction in numbers. During the period from 1891 to 
1900 the total catch for both islands was only 6,245 skins. The decline being attributed 
to over-trapping, no foxes were killed on either island during the winters of 189 1-2 and 
1894-5, an d the season of 1898-9 was marked by a suspension of killing on St. Paul. 
But the scarcity of food rather than excessive killing gradually becoming recognized as 
the real cause of the decline, the special feeding of the animals was taken up in 1896, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



107 



and has been carried on in a more or less systematic way ever since. This matter is else- 
where discussed. 

In marked contrast to the numbers taken on the Pribilof Islands during the middle 
and latter part of the last century, the lessened number yielded during the last two 
decades is of interest. The figures have been compiled from various authentic sources. 

Number of foxes taken on Pribilof Islands, 18QO-IQI3. 



1890-91 . . . 
1891-92. . . 
1892^3 . . . 
1893-94- •'• 
1894-95 • • ■ 
1895-96. . . 
1896-97 . . . 
1897-98.. . 
1898-99 . . . 
1 899- 1 900 . 
1900-1901 . 
1901-2 .... 
1902-3 — 
1903-4 — 
1904-5 — 
1905-6. . . . 
1906-7. . . . 
1907-8 .... 
1908-9 .... 
1909-10 . . . 
1910-n. . . 
1911-12. . . 
1912-13 . . . 
1913-14... 



Blue. White. Total 



336 
213 
<*8 
256 
214 
149 



245 
155 
163 
228 
15 
31 



149 
131 
109 
143 
150 



37 
27 



36 
20 
27 
30 
25 



525 

m 

373 
240 

8 
274 
223 
167 

273 
156 
170 
238 
20 
^33 

l b ! 

w 

m 

'185 

151 
136 
173 
175 



St. George. 



Blue. White. Total 



928 

557 



c 33 

c 497 

c 346 

c 386 

«4i8 

C441 

C246 

c 5" 

486 

262 

468 

366 

438 

367 

212 

240 

275 

262 

106 



793 

m 
928 
571 

m 
33 
497 
346 
386 
418 

441 
246 
511 
501 
272 
480 
374 
446 
377 
222 
241 
277 
263 
107 



Pribilof Islands. 



Blue. White. Total 



1,318 



1, 264 

770 



C 7II 

c 495 

c 386 

C663 

C596 

C409 

c 739 

501 

293 

468 

366 

438 

367 

361 

371 

384 

4°5 

256 



37 
41 



28 

I 
7 



46 



1. 318 



.301 
811 
d& 

307 
720 
513 
386 
691 
597 
416 
749 
521 
3°5 
480 
374 
446 
377 
407 
392 
413 
436 



a Including 10 pairs blue foxes sold for breeding purposes. 

b No trapping done. 

c Including a few white foxes. 



d From Otter Island; none taken on St. Paul. . 
« Including 19 blue and 1 white from Otter Island. 



It will be noticed that a few skins have been taken on Otter Island. In former 
years this island, situated about 6 miles southward from St. Paul, maintained a con- 
siderable herd of foxes. In December, 1875, according to the St. Paul records, 60 
foxes were taken. In December, 1894, a trapping party took 8 foxes and was supposed 
to have depopulated the island. No more appear to have been taken there until the 
winter of 1904-5, when 33 were killed. In December, 1909, 19 blue foxes and 1 white 
one were taken there. 

During our visit to Otter Island in July, 1914, we looked carefully for foxes, but 
saw no traces. This island has large colonies of breeding birds and would support a 
good number of foxes during the summer, but the natural supply of food in winter is 
apparently not sufficient. In former times a few fur seals bred there, and the bachelors 
hauled out in some numbers. Although none seem to have been killed there, the animals 
dying from natural causes may have afforded some food, which, added to what was 
obtainable on the beaches, permitted numbers of the foxes to survive the winter. That 
they were never in a prosperous condition is indicated by the fact that the skins taken 
there have always been reported as inferior. Unless seals should again resort to Otter 
Island in numbers sufficient to warrant killing for the skins, so that winter provision 
could be supplied, it will probably be unwise to encourage the foxes to increase there. 
Although there are none there at present, a few are likely to reach there from St. Paul 
whenever the pack ice occurs in quantity. 



108 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

On one occasion, on June 1 1 , 1892, a fox was found on Walrus Island. Its activities 
had prevented the birds from beginning to nest, and it was shot. On June 27, when 
the island was next visited, a boatload of eggs was gathered. 

DISEASES. 

The main cause of the decline of the fox herd, lack of food, has been sufficiently 
discussed. Some diminution due to disease has taken place, but apparently there has 
never been any serious epidemic. Deaths of occasional individuals occur from tuber- 
culosis, hemorrhage, or other affections of the kidneys, and ulcers of the stomach or 
intestines. Mange, or a similar disease, has appeared at infrequent intervals, and has 
undoubtedly caused the death of many. It was prevalent on St. George in 1914. 

Under this head cannibalism, although undoubtedly due entirely to lack of proper 

food, may be considered. It has caused a serious loss on a few occasions, the most 

notable occurring on St. George in the autumn and winter of 1913-14, when several 

hundred were estimated to have perished from this cause. At this time the foxes were 

being supplied plentifully with salted food. This apparently had been imperfectly 

freshened and was not relished by the animals. It is certain that salt is injurious to 

foxes, and it is not unlikely that the eating of salted food induced a diseased condition 

similar in effect to scurvy, and that the craving for fresh meat led to cannibalism. 

During the spring of 1914 the number of foxes observed was unusually small, and many 

were in poor physical condition. 

FOOD. 

Seal meat. — Under the conditions prevailing for many years on the Pribilof Islands, 
while large numbers of seals were killed every season, the thousands of bodies which 
were left on the killing fields constituted the main source of food for the foxes. To this 
abundance the islands owe their eminence as a fox nursery. During the few years 
immediately following 1890, coincident with a reduced catch of seals, a great diminution 
in the numbers of foxes on both islands was apparent, and although for several years 
only a few animals were killed the numbers continued to remain at a low ebb. Although 
other factors have contributed to their continued scarcity, there is no doubt that the 
main cause has been the lessened quantity of seal meat available. Formerly no special 
care was taken to preserve the meat, the bodies being merely left on the killing grounds 
to be disposed of by natural processes, and the foxes securing their share as best they could. 
But when it became evident that the diminution in the fox herd was due to the reduced 
kill of seals, steps were taken to provide the animals with salted food of various kinds, 
and seal meat was used as far as available. The subject of most effectively utilizing 
surplus seal meat for fox food is elsewhere discussed. 

During the summer and early autumn the bodies of young seals dying from natural 
causes on the breeding rookeries are eagerly devoured bv the foxes being eaten on the 
spot or dragged to the dens for the young. 

Birds and eggs. — The foxes of the Pribilof Islands seem to prefer birds to any other 
food. The greater abundance of birds on St. George seems to have been the direct cause 
of the larger number of foxes taken on that island. During the spring and summer the 
remains of birds, which are found about the burrows of the foxes in large numbers, testify 
to the fondness of the animals for this food. The foxes are adept climbers and make 
their way about cliffs which appear absolutely inaccessible to a quadruped. Many gulls, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1 9 1 4. I09 

puffins, murres, and other cliff-nesting species are secured by the foxes in this way. But 
the bird most commonly eaten is the least auklet, the smallest sea bird found on the 
islands. These occur literally in millions and are especially numerous on St. George,- 
From the time of their arrival in early May they are pursued relentlessly by the foxes 
which are easily able to secure them owing to their habit of nesting in large colonies 
in subterranean cavities on the bowlder-covered beaches and ridges. So numerous 
are the birds, however, that the foxes seem to cause no appreciable diminution in 
their numbers. During the nesting season the eggs of various birds are eagerly and 
successfully sought by the foxes. Though it is probable that eggs of practically all the 
breeding species are secured, those of the murres furnish the bulk of this form of sub- 
sistence. The foxes store large numbers by burying them singly in the mossy tundra in 
the vicinity of the breeding grounds of the birds. These spots are later visited and the 
eggs are eaten on the spot or carried to the young. 

After the departure of the bulk of the birds in the autumn, the foxes derive but little 
benefit from those remaining. An occasional dead bird or an egg overlooked during the 
time of abundance, or an unfortunate migrant or winter visitor is picked up, but as a 
source of food in winter, the birds are of little value. Out of about 40 stomachs of foxes 
examined by A. G. Whitney at St. Paul village late in November, 1913, feathers or other 
remains of birds were found in 11 cases, but they probably represented only a small 
amount of nourishment. 

Miscellaneous food. — The various invertebrates and other forms of marine life are 
of great importance as food during the winter, and are of course utilized to some extent 
at other seasons. Of about 40 stomachs of foxes examined at St. Paul village in late 
November, 1913, tunicates were found in five cases, and the remains of a fish in one. 
Grass or other vegetable matter of little nutritive value, but chiefly indicating that the 
animals were hard pressed for food, were found in 24 cases, sand or earth in 16, and hair 
in 9. In the records of stomach contents from other parts of the island, examined and 
recorded by natives, sea eggs (Echinoderms) were frequently mentioned. These notes 
relating to a series of stomachs which were examined with some care, accord in a general 
way the results of stomach examinations made in former years on St. George. 

In former times many sea lions were killed for their hides and for human food, 
and much of this meat was available for the foxes. At present the sea lion herd is 
much depleted and few are killed. Occasionally a dead sea lion, whale, or walrus 
is cast up and is utilized. A whale, if cast ashore at a point where a quantity of the 
blubber can be secured, furnishes a great store of excellent fox food. If obtained 
during the summer, or if desired for use during more than one season, it must be pre- 
served by salting, and of course should be thoroughly freshened before being fed. Quan- 
tities of vegetable substances, including grasses and various herbaceous plants, are 
eaten by the foxes in times of scarcity, but these have little value as food. 

Although lemmings are abundant on St. George, and it has always been assumed 
that they are devoured by the foxes whenever possible, there seems to be no positive 
evidence to this effect. Among the contents of large numbers of fox stomachs exam- 
ined during past years no remains of lemmings seem to have been found. During 
the autumn of 1913, at a time when lemmings were unusually abundant, no evidence 
was found that any were eaten. At the same time the stronger foxes were eating 



IIO BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

their own kind. It seems scarcely credible that lemmings should never be eaten, 
but it is plain that they can not form an important element in the food supply. 

Needs of foxes according to season. — It is evident from the above discussion of 
the principal sources of food available even at the present time, when comparatively 
few seals are being killed, that the relatively small number of foxes now living on the 
islands do not suffer much from hunger during the summer months. During the early 
autumn also there is apparently a sufficiency of food, but the young foxes, after being 
abandoned by their parents in early September and while yet inexperienced in seeking 
food, undoubtedly have a hard struggle for existence. But the fact that the foxes 
taken in late November are almost invariably fat shows that they have fared well 
during the autumn. Conditions during midwinter and early spring, however, are 
necessarily more severe. Regarding the natural food at this season, the most complete 
observations seem to be those of Dr. W. L. Hahn. On January 18, 1911, he found 
indications showing that tunicates formed an important source of food supply. In 
late January he noted that the common stalked ascidian, together with a colonial 
form, and a large sessile, potato-like form, constituted a very large part of the food 
of the foxes. Later he found that a few sea urchins were eaten. About the middle 
of April ascidians and other invertebrates were being eaten. During the winter, how- 
ever, he noted that the shore ice prevented the foxes from securing a great deal of food 
which otherwise would have been available. 

As regards food obtained from the sea, St. Paul Island on account of its more 
extensive beaches offers better resources than St. George, where steep cliffs form a 
large part of the shore line. 

Thus waging a constant struggle against starvation and the rigor of the elements 
the foxes pass the long winter until the arrival of the hordes of birds marks the beginning 
of a period of abundance. 

History of special feeding. — During the winter of 1894-95 when it began to be evi- 
dent that the growing scarcity of foxes on St. George was due to lack of food, an effort 
was made to feed such as came about the village, and many were saved from starvation. 
In the summer of 1896, James Judge inaugurated the present system of feeding on St. 
George by salting a large quantity of seal carcasses. During the following winter these 
bodies which had been more or less perfectly preserved were freshened a few at a time 
and put out for the foxes. The readiness with which they responded and the preference 
for this food which they exhibited favored the continuance of the practice, and with 
various modifications this plan has been followed ever since. The lack of a sufficient 
supply of seal meat above the actual food requirements of the population, however, has 
made it necessary to resort to other food. Salted or dried salmon and whale blubber 
have been fed in large quantities and with greater or less success. The difficulty of prop- 
erly freshening the salted food, however, is always very great. Sea water does not 
effectively remove the salt and the supply of fresh water being limited to a few places 
and usually being not ample nor easily available for this purpose, is further reduced in 
quantity and availability by freezing at the very time it is most needed. The inevitable 
result has been that much imperfectly freshened food has been given to the animals, 
sometimes with disastrous results. The difficulties in the way of properly removing the 
salt from foods preserved in this way seem to be insurmountable, taking into considera- 
tion the necessity for supplying the food at a number of widely separated locations. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. Ill 

On a number of occasions the bodies of seals and the offal from those utilized for 
food by the inhabitants have been buried in pits. When opened in the winter the meat 
is sometimes entirely spoiled, but usually a portion is eatable. Meat kept in this way 
is generally not eaten at once, but eventually is consumed. A quantity of seal carcasses 
buried in the autumn of 1910 on St. Paul Island were examined about midwinter and 
found to be in a more or less putrid condition. They were not visited by the foxes to 
any extent until toward the end of the winter, but were still being eaten as late as May 10, 
191 1. While it is unlikely that any harm to the foxes results from the eating of putrid 
or imperfectly cured meat, the great waste involved and the hardship of handling the 
product forbid the use of this method. It is equally plain that salted food, even when 
freshened under the most favorable conditions, is unnatural and can not fail to be more 
or less injurious. 

The objections to salted or buried food make it necessary to look for some better 
method of preservation. It may be borne in mind that it is not necessary for the meat 
to be preserved perfectly, but only sufficiently to guard against loss and to put it in such 
shape that it can be handled. In the absence of cold storage the remedy seems to be 
in the use of dried meat. With the improved methods of transportation absolutely 
necessary in order that the resources of the islands may be effectively and economically 
exploited, the bodies of seals killed in the vicinity of the hauling grounds at points 
accessible to the foxes may be hung in screened shelters and dried. It has been proved 
.by experiment that the meat can be preserved in this way at a very small expense, and 
that the foxes prefer it to salted meat. 

The importance of increasing these valuable herds of foxes justifies the expenditure 
of more care than has been devoted to the subject. The expense and labor of preserving 
and distributing an ample supply of seal meat, when killing on a larger scale shall be 
resumed, will probably not be greater than that involved at present. This subject is 
discussed at greater length elsewhere. 

The fact that the methods now in vogue have failed to accomplish the result sought 

calls for no criticism of the persons who have been in charge. The failure has been due 

to circumstances which in most cases have been beyond the control of the agents. The 

fact remains, however, that in spite of what has been done, the number of the animals 

and to some extent the quality of the fur have gradually declined since special feeding 

and the reservation of a part of the stock for breeding purposes were inaugurated. In 

addition the herd on St. George is not only greatly reduced in number at present, but 

the animals are in very poor physical condition. It is hoped that the causes resulting 

in these unfavorable conditions have been stated in sufficient detail. The prospect of 

removing the main obstacles is good, and the outlook for the ultimate restoration of 

the herd is by no means dark. 

BREEDING HABITS. 

According to Judge, who has made more careful observations on the foxes than any 
other person, they mate in March or early April. New-born young have been found 
from May 17 to June 6. The young are usually born above ground, and are transferred 
to underground dens within a few days. The dens are usually in rocky ground, or, 
when situated in sandy areas, beneath a rock. 

Among 22 litters of new-born young observed by Judge, the smallest numbered 5 
and the largest 11 pups. A newly-born pup weighed 2>£ ounces. He states that the 
84512°— S. Doc. 9S0, 63-3 8 



112 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

mortality among the young is large, and is due mainly to lack of nourishment and 
inclement weather. About the middle of June the young begin to be observed about 
the mouths of the burrows. While the young are small, the mother, assisted frequently 
by another fox, which is presumably the male parent, is very assiduous in providing 
them with food. Birds are the favorite prey at this time, and quantities of feathers 
and other remains which are scattered about the burrows testify to the skill of the 
animals as hunters. When the dens are in the vicinity of the seal rookeries, the bodies 
of many pups which have died are dragged away, and the bones picked clean of flesh may 
be found about the burrows. 

METHODS OF CAPTURING. 

Previous to 1890 the usual method of capturing foxes on the Pribilof Islands was 
by means of steel traps. When, however, the plan of feeding them was inaugurated 
on St. George, the readiness with which the animals came to the feeding places suggested 
capturing them in box traps, so that certain ones could be liberated for breeding. This 
proving successful, the plan was conceived of taking them in larger numbers by means 
of a larger trap. As finally perfected, this was a cage of woven wire 14 by 10 feet and 8 
feet high, provided with a door which could be closed at will. This cage adjoins a house 
divided into three rooms, used for storing and freshening the food and handling the 
foxes. This trap, which is the regular feeding place, is usually left open so that the foxes 
can come and go at will. The animals having become accustomed to the cage, it is 
only necessary to remain in hiding until a number of them have entered the inclosure 
and then close the door by means of a rope. The animals are then examined and those 
to be reserved as breeders are marked by clipping a ring of fur from the tail, the males 
being marked near the end of the tail, and females near the base. Those left for breeders 
must be of good color, not too old, and in good physical condition. Males taken in early 
winter, in good condition, usually range in weight from about 8 to 14 pounds, and 
females from 7 to 10 pounds. In selecting those to be left for breeding, no males 
weighing less than 10 pounds are saved and no females less than 7K pounds. 

It was formerly the custom to reserve a preponderance of females, but the fact that 
the fox is a monogamous animal being recognized, the sexes are now left in approximately 
equal numbers. For a number of years previous to 1910, approximately 200 pairs were 
usually released as breeders. Since then the number has usually been less. During 
the winter of 191 3-1 4, 237 males and 192 females were released, but as before stated, 
the spring of 1914 found the animals in poor physical condition, so that this number 
can not be taken as an indication that the herd is in a prosperous condition. 

In the annual trapping and handling of as many of the St. George foxes as can be 
be secured, all white ones and all those crippled or diseased are killed. On St. Paul 
Island the trapping has been almost entirely by means of steel traps, though deadfalls 
are sometimes used. For many years it has been the custom to allow the natives to 
shoot all white foxes seen during the trapping season, and during some years for longer 
periods, but this method has not been very effectual. The reasons will be discussed 
later. 

Of a lot of 1,044 foxes handled on St. George Island during the winter of 1905-6, 
as recorded by Chichester (Senate Doc. 376, 60th Cong., 1st sess., p. 51, 1908), 497 were 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 113 

males and 547 were females. Of these 218 males and 245 females were killed. Those 
released comprised 279 males and 302 females. 

Of the entire number of males, 10 weighed from 5K to 6 pounds, inclusive, and -32 
others between 6 and 7X pounds; 239 fell between 7K and 10 pounds, the minimum 
weight required of breeders. Of the remainder, 206 weighed between 10X and 15 
pounds, 7 between 15^ and 17% pounds; and the other three weighed i7 l A, 20, and 
20X pounds, respectively. 

Of the females handled on this occasion, 4 weighed from 4 to 5 pounds, and 7 others 
fell below 6 pounds; 280 weighed between 6 and 8 pounds, inclusive; 197 fell between 
8)4 and 10 pounds; 56 ranged from 10X to 13K pounds; and the remaining three 
weighed, respectively, 14X1 i5> and 21^ pounds, the last being the heaviest blue fox on 
record from the Pribilof Islands. 

The largest fox taken on St. Paul Island during the trapping season of 1913, 
which comprised the last week of November, was a male weighing 19K pounds. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Feeding and method 0} capturing. — With the resumption of commercial killing of 
seals, an abundance of excellent food for the foxes will be assured. With increased facili- 
ties for transportation the killing would be done in the vicinity of the hauling grounds. 
The principal ones on St. Paul Island are as follows : Northeast Point, Polovina Point, 
Reef and adjoining points, Tolstoi, Lukanin, and the several hauling grounds at Zapadni. 
Practically all the foxes on the island live near or at points allowing easy access to these 
places. Roofed sheds screened from flies and provided with arrangements for hanging 
quantities of seal bodies should be built for the purpose of drying the meat. These 
sheds should be so constructed as to keep out the foxes, but a free circulation of air should 
be allowed. The drying process can be facilitated by slow fires of driftwood; this can 
be gathered nearby in sufficient quantities for this purpose. The use of a fire will dry 
the air and also protect the meat against flies. The drying shed could serve also as a 
storehouse for the meat. 

The feeding inclosures, at least preceding and during the annual trapping season, 
should be trap cages similar to those now used on St. George, but future experience will 
doubtless suggest some improvements. Such traps have never been used on St. Paul 
but there is, of course, no reason why they can not be introduced. It will be desirable 
to avoid the necessity of remaining at watch all night during the trapping season to 
spring the traps, especially if these trapping stations are established at a number of 
places. Inclined funnel-shaped entrances have been recommended by G. Dallas Hanna. 
These or inclined walkways from the end of which the animals can jump down to a tip- 
ping shelf can without doubt be devised. A larger feeding trap would prevent the 
animals from crowding and by allowing the food to be more scattered would insure a 
share to the weaker animals. If low houses were provided in the corners of the feeding 
corrals, the foxes on finding themselves trapped would doubtless hide in these and 
could easily be secured for examination. 

In addition to the feeding which should be maintained at these places during the 
winter season, some judicious scattering of food suitable for the young foxes in certain 
well-stocked breeding areas would doubtless result in a larger proportion of young reach- 



114 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

ing the age when they are self-supporting. This seems to be especially desirable at 
Northeast Point, which is very suitable as a breeding ground for foxes, but which 
has no important bird rookeries. When the killing of seals on a commercial basis is 
resumed, the refuse from the killing fields may be sufficient for this purpose. Careful 
observations regarding the needs of the young foxes during the summer are needed. 

On St. George Island the foxes are more numerous and more generally distributed 
than on St. Paul because of the extensive bird rookeries, which occupy about one-half 
of the shore line, and the many square miles of the interior where innumerable auklets 
raise their young; but since the same topographic features which determine the dis- 
tribution of the birds, and in turn that of the foxes, limit the seals to a few scattered 
areas, probably not more than half the foxes have their homes near the hauling grounds. 
Still the comparatively small size of the island makes it possible for most of the animals 
to reach easily some place where seals might be killed. Owing to the limited number 
and small size of the hauling grounds and the difficult nature of the ground, it will 
probably never be feasible to develop as complete a system of transportation on St. 
George as is necessary for St. Paul, but such improvements should be made as will 
render Staraya Artel, Zapadni, and East Rookeries more accessible. This will permit 
arrangements to be installed at these places for the feeding and trapping of foxes. The 
remaining place where feeding seems to be desirable is Garden Cove. This place is one 
of the few possible landing places and is often the only one feasible. At present it is 
connected with St. George village only by a foot trail. If a wagon road were built it 
would be possible at times to utilize Garden Cove to good advantage as a landing place 
for supplies, and the food necessary for maintaining a foxing station could be easily 
transported. Failing the construction of a wagon road, the food could be taken there 
by boat at some favorable time in the summer. 

Reserves for breeding. — With improved methods of feeding and capturing the foxes, 
enlarged opportunities for selecting and reserving a sufficient number of animals fit for 
breeders will be possible, since a larger proportion of the entire herd may be handled. 
The standards governing the selection of animals for reservation, as practiced in the 
past, seem to call for no criticism, and if the methods of feeding and capturing the foxes 
be improved and carried into effect on both islands a marked advance in the effective 
strength of the herds should soon be apparent. 

Elimination of white foxes. — As before stated, the blue foxes, though representing an 
abnormal state, are so predominant on the Pribilof Islands as to be practically the 
normal condition. Owing to their greater value, it is desirable that they form as large 
a percentage as possible of the herd, and the elimination of the white element as far as 
practicable is therefore important. This fact has long been recognized, and ever since 
selective trapping on St. George Island has been practiced all white ones caught have 
been killed. The result has been that the number of white ones now found there is almost 
negligible. During the last 10 years St. George Island has produced 3,560 foxes, only 
88 of which have been white; during the last four years out of 888 foxes only 5 have 
been recorded as white. 

On St. Paul, where the attempt to eliminate the white element has been prosecuted 
only in a half-hearted way during the past five years, the proportion of white is much 
larger. In the last five years out of 830 foxes taken for fur on St. Paul 148 have been 
white. The proportion from year to year has not varied greatly. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 115 

It is evident that the attempt to eliminate the undesirable white element on St. 
George Island has been successful and that this success is due to the method of capture. 
It is also evident that merely allowing the natives to shoot the white ones during a part 
of the year has met with no success. 

There is good reason to believe that continuance of the methods now practiced on 
St. George will keep the white foxes down to a negligible proportion and perhaps elimi- 
nate them entirely. The establishment of similar methods of trapping on St. Paul 
should eventually achieve the same result. But success will be attained much sooner 
if the undesirable animals are pursued in other ways. The natives should be encour- 
aged by a reward to shoot the white foxes during the entire hunting season. They are 
now forbidden to use firearms during the summer, and such a prohibition is desirable 
for many reasons, but they are and should be allowed to shoot during the fall and 
winter. Most of the skins of foxes taken during the winter will be salable. The reduc- 
tion of white foxes by any other method than shooting outside of the regular trapping 
season is obviously not feasible. The white foxes can be as easily distinguished from 
the blue when in the summer coat as in the white winter pelage, and they should be 
vigorously pursued and destroyed at all seasons. It might be best to leave white foxes 
which were found caring for pups until the latter are large enough to take care of them- 
selves. During this time the animal could be kept under observation and might be 
destroyed at the close of the summer. But against this is the objection that presum- 
ably a part of the litter raised would be white animals also, the destruction of which, 
together with that of the parent, would be thus left to the chances of the future. This 
point is one which might well be left to the judgment of those in charge, but in common 
with many others needs the careful consideration of some one who shall be free to give 
his attention to such problems. 

Animals which are suffering from disease should be killed whenever possible at all 
seasons. This is especially important at the present time, when the foxes on St. George 
are in poor condition. The process of raising the herd to a high -state of perfection, 
even under the favoring influence of better food, will be greatly retarded if the pursuit 
of animals suffering from mange or other diseases can be prosecuted only during the 
few weeks of the trapping season. The natives should be encouraged to cooperate in 
this work. 

Care of skins. — More care needs to be taken to cleanse the fox skins that they may 
reach the market in as good condition as possible. Those trapped in steel traps become 
more or less bedraggled during their efforts to escape, while those taken in cage traps 
become soiled from contact with the greasy meat and by scrambling over each other. 
Care should be taken to avoid such soiling as far as possible, and better facilities should 
be installed for cleaning and drying such as become soiled by blood, grease, or dirt. 
The skins can best be cleaned when freshly taken from the animal. Washing the 
soiled skins with soap and water will probably be found the most advantageous method 
and will probably be sufficient. To facilitate drying the skins, some arrangement for 
tumbling them could easily be devised, to be used with some absorbent. Stretching 
the skins in a uniform manner and taking care that they be well shaped and well dried 
are also important points. 

Sale for breeding. — On a few occasions in past years blue foxes have been sold at a 
nominal price to persons engaged in breeding them, usually to those holding leases of 



Il6 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

islands in Alaska for such purposes. In recent years the growing scarcity of the animals 
and the relatively high price obtainable for the skins have made it inadvisable to dispose 
of the live animals at a price less than that brought by the skins. The advisability of 
offering some encouragement to those engaged in the business of propagating foxes 
being recognized, however, the following announcement was issued by the Secretary of 
Commerce on July i, 1913, in connection with the information relative to the leasing of 
certain islands in Alaska for the purpose of raising foxes: 

The Secretary of Commerce will undertake to supply from the Pribilof Islands fox herds a limited 
number of blue foxes for breeding stock to lessees of any of the islands that may be leased, or to other 
responsible parties operating fox ranches in Alaska. Such foxes will be sold under competitive bids 
and will be delivered to the purchasers at Unalaska on a date to be agreed upon. , 

Later this offer was extended to include persons engaged in raising foxes elsewhere 
than in Alaska. As a result of this offer a few small lots of foxes have been sold, at a 
price of about $100 each. These have been young animals. 

In considering the advisability of continuing this practice, it is necessary to bear 
in mind a variety of peculiar circumstances, particularly the present low state of the 
fox herds in point of numbers and vitality, and the impossibility of arranging for prompt 
and uninterrupted carriage of the animals from the islands to their destination. The 
latter difficulty is likely to lead to undue mortality during transit, resulting in the waste 
of valuable life and causing dissatisfaction to buyers. 

The present unsatisfactory state of the fox herd is an even more serious objection 
to the disposition of animals for breeding. The herds need the retention of the best 
blood, and it is of course unwise to allow inferior stock to be used for starting new herds 
elsewhere. 

It seems wise, therefore, to discontinue for the present the sale of animals for breed- 
ing purposes. When the herds shall be brought up to a higher state of efficiency as 
regards numbers and quality, the disposal of a limited number of animals of high quality 
might well be considered. This could then be done without injury to the herds, and 
would facilitate greatly the establishment of a legitimate and profitable industry. 

Experiments in domesticating foxes. — The readiness shown by the foxes of St. George 
Island in responding to feeding has resulted in many of them becoming semidomesti- 
cated. This has led to the advocacy of experiments being made with a view to improving 
the fur and the physical condition of the animals by selective breeding. It is thought 
also that the raising of a larger proportion of the young to maturity might be effected, 
since it would assure their proper nourishment during the critical period when in a state 
of nature they are abandoned by their parents. It is thought by some that the eventual 
domestication of all the foxes of the islands would be profitable. While it is believed 
that this is impracticable, it is evident that some experiments in raising the animals 
in inclosures may well be made. The experience thus gained would be of great impor- 
tance to prospective breeders of the animals and would also help to an understanding of 
the needs of the wild foxes on the islands. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 117 

THE REINDEER. 

INTRODUCTION AND GROWTH OF HERD. 

For some years the Department of the Interior, in connection with its work on the 
education of the natives of Alaska, has maintained large herds of domesticated reindeer 
at various points on the mainland. These herds have prospered and from time to time 
have been drawn upon to stock other places, including several islands in the Aleutian 
chain and elsewhere. 

In the course of a study of the economic resources of the Pribilof Islands it was seen 
that they afforded a quantity of food suitable for reindeer and it was believed that 
utilizing this product to maintain herds of these useful animals would be a wise proce- 
dure. Accordingly arrangements were effected with the Department of the Interior for 
the transfer of enough of the animals to start a herd on each island. By the cooperation 
of the Revenue-Cutter Service, 40 animals were brought to the islands at the end of 
August, 191 1. Twenty-five of these, 21 does and 4 bucks, were landed on St. Paul on 
August 31, and the remaining 15 — 12 does and 3 bucks — were put on St. George on Sep- 
tember 1. Practically all the animals were of breeding age. There has been little 
mortality and both herds have shown a good percentage of increase. 

In the spring of 191 2 the St. Paul herd produced 17 fawns and had suffered the loss 
of only 2 of the original herd, a male and a female. In the spring of 191 3 18 fawns were 
born, and in 1914 25 were produced. The mortality has continued to be small, and the 
herd on St. Paul in the summer of 1914 numbered about 75 animals. All seemed to be 
healthy with the exception of 2 of the older males, which were lame and seemed to be 
suffering from some trouble of the feet. This is probably the same disease that has 
occasionally occurred among the herds on the mainland. The exact nature and cause 
of this disease does not appear to be well known. The animals are said to recover occa- 
sionally, but it would seem best to kill the animals now affected, since they are consuming 
food which will be needed for the healthy animals and they are not needed for the growth 
of the herd. 

The animals on St. George also are in good condition. In spite of the fact that the 
oldest buck disappeared soon after the animals were landed, 1 1 of the 1 2 females produced 
fawns in the spring of 1912. In the spring of 191 3, according to the report from the island, 
15 fawns were born. This would mean that some of the young only 1 year old produced 
fawns. Of those born, 13 survived the summer. In 191 4 21 young were produced, 
and the herd numbered 58 animals. The total number now on both islands therefore is 
slightly more than 150. 

The reindeer on both islands keep rather closely to the higher, less frequented parts, 
where they are seldom disturbed and where their favorite food is most abundant. The 
animals of course require no feeding and no special care except at fawning time, but 
in order that they may not become too wild to be easily handled, they should be frequently 
visited and rounded up. In no other way can they be kept under observation and their 
actual condition be known. At fawning time some special care and attention is necessary 
to prevent undue loss of the newly born young. On St. Paul the females are driven into 
a corral for the fawning. This prevents the desertion of the young ones by their mothers, 
which often occurs during the prevalence of hard storms, and which results in heavy 
mortality. The newly born young are also in some danger from the old bucks. 



Il8 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

LIMITED CAPACITY OF THE ISLANDS. 

Although the Pribilof Islands afford a favorable habitat for reindeer it is plain that 
their relatively small size will not permit an unlimited increase, though larger herds 
than now exist can undoubtedly be supported. As the' summer food is practically 
unlimited in quantity, the main factor limiting the size of the herd seems to be the 
quantity of the various lichens which constitute the main source of food in winter. 
These lichens are not evenly distributed over the islands, but occupy certain fairly 
extensive areas. Unlike the grasses and herbaceous plants which die down and renew 
their growth annually, the lichens grown persistently but very slowly, and when once 
destroyed do not restock a given area for a long time, perhaps as long as 20 years. 
Detailed study of the habits of the animals in their special haunts, and of the areas 
drawn upon for their subsistence must precede any definite prediction as to the number 
that the islands can maintain permanently. It is certain, however, that the herds can 
be increased considerably over their present numbers. Observations made while this 
increase is going on should lead to a better understanding of the actual relation of the 
animals to their present habitat and make it possible to avoid letting them increase 
beyond the danger point. 

Since with a few exceptions none of the animals have been killed, it follows that 
there is now a considerable number of males in excess of the actual breeding require- 
ments of the herds. A reduction in their number should of course be made as an aid in 
conserving the food supply. Diseased animals should be killed and the meat utilized 
for the foxes. Other males should be killed from time to time and utilized to the best 

advantage. 

INDIFFERENCE OF NATIVES REGARDING REINDEER. 

Although the reindeer were introduced primarily for the benefit of the natives, 
they take practically no interest in the animals. For many generations these people 
have lived and died among the seals and foxes. The direct or indirect results of the 
exploitation of these animals have formed their sole means of livelihood and have satis- 
fied their every need. It is very difficult therefore for them to realize that these new 
animals can ever prove of any real benefit to them, especially as no benefit has yet been 
realized. On each island two natives are paid $2.50 each per month to care for the 
reindeer. With only this small reward, unsupported by any natural interest in the 
animals, it follows that the so-called herders never see the animals they have in charge 
unless told to look them up, and even when this occurs their observations are more or less 
inaccurate or misleading and are seldom of much value. This is only one manifestation 
of the native's inherent lack of interest in any project or occupation apart from sealing. 
This apathy will be difficult or impossible to overcome, although certain ones among the 
natives will doubtless show more aptitude than others in this and other new lines of 
work. But unless natives are found who will take a real interest in the reindeer, their 
services except for work which is mainly mechanical will be of little use. The animals 
undoubtedly need closer attention. They should be herded and driven often enough 
to become accustomed to their attendants so that when it becomes necessary to corral 
them they may be more readily handled. At present they are scarcely seen from 
month to month with the natural result that they are more or less wild and intractable 
and difficult to impound or to observe. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 119 

USE AND VALUE OF THE HERD. 

It would seem that the reindeer on the Pribilof Islands are destined to be useful 
mainly as a source of fresh meat for the Government employees on the islands and as 
a possible source of supply for stocking other places. The training of some for driving 
has been suggested, but considering the small size of the islands and the rough nature 
of the ground it does not seem advisable to take this up on an extensive scale. The 
killing of a large proportion of the young males is desirable, and the meat of these 
would form a welcome substitute for some of the more costly canned foods which now 
necessarily form a large percentage of the provisions in the islands during the entire 
year. At times the meat could be issued to the natives, although it is doubtful if it 
would be as acceptable to them as that of the seal, which naturally forms their staple 
meat diet. The skins of the animals killed could be tanned and used for making gloves 
and other articles of clothing, but it would involve a radical departure from fixed habits 
on the part of the natives and it is doubtful if much can be hoped for in this regard, 
especially as the supply of skins will never be large. But by turning into desirable 
food certain natural resources which would otherwise be wasted it is believed that the 
reindeer herds will more than justify the expenditure of the comparatively small amount 
of time and money involved in their introduction and care. 

The presence of growing herds of reindeer on the Pribilof Islands seems to afford 
an excellent opportunity to make detailed studies of great value. Here in a habitat 
which is favorable and yet is so limited in area as to allow of easy observation, a natu- 
ralist can study the diseases and the general relation of the animals to their habitat 
with comparative ease, and the knowledge thus gained should be of help in realizing 
to the best advantage the fullest value of the herds, not only on the Pribilofs but in 
other parts of Alaska. 

THE SEA LIONS. 

Steller's sea lion (Eumetopias stelleri) is a huge animal, the adult male being about 
three times the bulk of the fur seal and weighing probably as much as 1,500 pounds. 
The females are rather less than half as large as the males. Such imposing animals 
occurring in numbers and in such situations as to admit of easy observation excite an 
interest, especially to the lover of wild life, scarcely second to that created by their 
smaller and more numerous relatives the fur seals, which they resemble rather closely 
in habits and beside which they dwell in amicable indifference. 

EARLY ABUNDANCE AND USES. 

Until comparatively recent times sea lions were found in thousands on both St. 
Paul and St. George Islands. In the primitive economy of the natives these animals 
played an important part. In addition to the use made of their skins as covering 
material for the bidarras, or large boats, the animals furnished to the Aleut material 
for waterproof clothing and boots and for many lesser articles, while the flesh, espe- 
cially that of the pups, was particularly relished. But in later years, with the growing 
tendency of the inhabitants to adopt imported food and clothing, the importance of the 
animal has dwindled until practically its only economic use is found in the manufacture 
of the huge bidarras. The adoption of modern methods of managing the business of 
the islands will undoubtedly demand the discarding of these boats as a means of landing 
cargo, and with them will vanish the importance of the sea lion as an economic factor. 



120 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



Considering the relatively small number of the animals remaining on the Pribilof 

Islands, it is well that they are no longer indispensable. Where formerly there were 

many thousands of the huge creatures there are at present only a few hundred on both 

islands. 

BREEDING HABITS. 

The breeding rookeries are only two in number, at Northeast Point on St. Paul, and 
near Garden Cove on St. George. In former years they resorted in numbers to both 
Otter and Walrus Islands, and doubtless do so yet to some extent as they do to Sea Lion 
Rock. A few are said to have bred on Walrus Island in the days of their abundance, 
but otherwise the present breeding stations seem to be the only ones ever occupied on the 
Pribilof Islands. 

In general habits they resemble the fur seals. The males take up their stations 
from about the first to the middle of May and are joined by the females about two weeks 
later. Young are recorded as having been born as early as May 24, and as with the fur 
seal the period of pup-bearing extends over several weeks. They grow very rapidly, and 
when less than three months old are as large as 3 -year-old fur seals. The animals 
when breeding are much more wary and timid than the fur seals. On the approach of 
man the females forsake their young and take to the water, where they gather in com- 
pany with the bachelors and the less courageous of the breeding males, and keep up a 
deafening roaring chorus of rage and defiance. 

A few of the largest males hold their ground and in the general excitement wage 
relentless battle with each other while the pups which are too young to accompany their 
mothers avoid the intruders as far as possible. The animals remain about the islands 
the entire year, but appear to be more scattered in winter. 

NUMBERS KILLED IN FORMER YEARS. 

In early days great numbers of sea lions were taken for the skins and meat. The 
following table shows approximately the number killed on St. Paul Island from 1870 
to 1890 according to the island records, which are probably incomplete. Unless other- 
wise stated practically all were killed at Northeast Point. 

Sea lions killed on St. Paul Island, 1870-1S90. 



Year. 


Number 
killed. 


Remarks. 


1870 


123 


About 500 skins sent to Unalaska spring 1870. 


1871 




No record of number killed. 


1872 


200 


A quantity of skins shipped probably to Unalaska and Kodiak. 


1873 


290 


160 driven from Northeast Point to Village Sept. 16; 130 driven from Northeast 
Point to Village Nov. 16. 


1874 


506 


Includes about 300 driven from Northeast Point to Village October and 
November. 


1875 


402 


Includes 340 driven from Northeast Point to Village during year; 295 skins 
shipped to Unalaska. 


1876 


292 


Includes 188 driven from Northeast Point to Village in November. 


1877 


38 


Mostly killed at Northeast Point. 


1878 


3OO 


All driven from Northeast Point to Village in November. 


1879 


*95 


Driven from Northeast Point to Village in October. 


1880 


66 


Killed at Northeast Point. 


1S81 


287 


20 killed on "Walrus Island, remainder driven from Northeast Point to Village 
in October and November. 


1882 


214 


Includes 100 driven from Northeast Point to Village in November. 


1883 


139 


Killed at Northeast Point. 


1884 


253 


Do. 


188s 


30 


Do. 


1886 


356 


Includes 190 driven from Northeast Point to Village. 


1887 


138 


Killed at Northeast Point. 


J888 


30 


Killed at Northeast Point in spring. 


1889 


30 


Killed at Northeast Point. 


1890 


4i 


Do. 



Buu,. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate XV. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 121 

It will be seen that up to 1882 most of the sea lions killed were driven from North- 
east Point to the village. This was done to avoid having to transport the meat and skins. 
It was necessary to let the huge animals travel very slowly, and from four to six days 
were required for the journey of 12 miles. After 1882 the animals became scarcer and 
more wary, and it became difficult to get enough together to make it profitable to conduct 
drives. 

In 1 891 a few only were killed, mainly pups taken for food. In 1892 about 50, 
mainly pups, were taken. In 1893 about 35 were killed; in 1894, 96; in 1895, 17 (bulls); 
in 1896, 25; in 1897, 22; in 1898, 33 (bulls). From 1899 to 1909 only a few were killed 
annually to furnish skins for covering the bidarras, but the number had then become so 
reduced as to lead the agent to believe that it would be advisable not to kill any more 
for several years. Within the last 10 years the number has slowly decreased. In the 
summer of 1904 there were on the breeding rookery at Northeast Point about 30 bulls 
and 200 cows. In the summer of 1914 there were about 20 breeding bulls and some- 
what over 100 cows. 

On St. George Island the location of the breeding rookery does not readily allow 
driving, as the animals lie at the foot of bluffs and are difficult to approach. No figures 
as to the numbers killed are available, but it is known that in former years a great many 
were taken, probably being driven from the hauling grounds near East Rookery where 
about 50 were seen in July, 1914. Comparatively few have been killed in recent years. 
No reliable data as to the number breeding on St. George Island are at hand, but it is 
thought that there are fewer than on St. Paul. 

MEASURES FOR PRESERVATION. 

Although the sea lions are no longer of great economic importance to the inhabitants 
of the Pribilof Islands, it seems desirable to preserve the remnants of the herds now exist- 
ing there. The species is not of general distribution in the North Pacific, but is confined 
to certain restricted and widely separated localities. Of these the Pribilof Islands con- 
stitute one of the most northerly stations. In most other parts of its range the animals 
are subjected to persecution and are being rapidly extirpated. On the Pribilof Islands — 
a Government reservation — the sea-lion herds are protected from indiscriminate killing 
without special expense or trouble, and an excellent opportunity is afforded to preserve 
for all time small herds of these highly interesting animals. The herds may be drawn 
upon from time to time to furnish scientific specimens to museums and a few may be 
killed for other special purposes, but they should not be exterminated. The presence of 
these small herds is not detrimental to the more numerous and valuable seals, and their 
preservation as an example of an imposing and highly interesting form of wild life seems 
to be highly desirable. 

THE BIRDS. 

Even to the casual visitor, not especially interested in ornithology, the bird life of the 
Pribilof Islands affords an experience which never fails to call forth expressions of wonder 
and admiration, while to the naturalist the teeming hordes are a constant delight. Taken 
as a whole, the islands present an array of bird life scarcely equaled in the world. Nearly 
100 species have been detected on the Pribilofs, and of these about 20 species breed there. 
With a few exceptions the breeding species exist by tens of thousands and nest in large 



122 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

colonies, usually on the cliffs and rocky ledges fronting the sea. Besides the breeding 
birds, there are a larger number which nest on the Alaskan mainland or in other parts of 
the far North and merely visit the Pribilofs on their journeys to and from their winter 
homes, which in some cases are as far distant as the Hawaiian Islands. A number of 
species of Asiatic distribution occur on the island and a few of these breed. In the case of 
a few species, the specimens taken on the Pribilof Islands constitute the only records for 
North America. It will be seen, therefore, that apart from their purely economic status, 
which is the subject of the present account, the birds of the Pribilof Islands are of unusual 
interest. 

The species which are abundant and of economic importance to the human inhabit- 
ants fall into six natural groups. Mentioned in the order of their importance these 
groups are the murres, auklets, gulls, ducks and geese, shorebirds, and cormorants. Some 
of these groups are important also as furnishing food for the valuable herds of blue foxes. 
Their value in this regard is discussed in the account dealing with that animal. 

MURRES. 

With the exception of the least auklet, the murres, or arries as they are usually 
called, probably outnumber any other birds on the islands. They include two species, 
the Pallas Murre (Uria lomvia arra) and the California Murre (Uria troile calif ornica). 
The first named is slightly larger than the other with the back glossy black, while the 
California Murre is of slighter build with the back more plumbeous. Both species 
breed on St. George, Walrus, and Otter Islands. The murres of St. Paul are mainly, if 
not entirely, the Pallas Murre. The two species are of nearly equal abundance, and for 
present purposes may be considered together. The size of the birds, nearly equal to 
the mallard, the ease with which they can be captured, and especially the immense size 
of the nesting colonies, combine to make them an important economic feature. Many 
of the birds are shot, especially in the spring, and the eggs are an important article of 
food. The single egg is very large for the size of the bird, being at least twice the bulk 
of a hen's egg. Many are taken from the cliffs of the two main islands, but the main 
source of supply is Walrus Island, about 10 miles from St. Paul. Here the birds nest 
to the number of many thousands. It is the custom for the natives to go to this island 
about the middle of June, when the birds have fairly started nesting, and to gather all 
eggs from a certain area. About a week later the place is revisited and the area lately 
denuded will be found restocked with fresh eggs. The birds will lay again, even if the 
second set is removed, and in some cases even a fourth egg may be deposited, but as 
the breeding ground is seldom revisited more than once in a season, the taking of eggs 
causes practically no diminution in the species, but merely retards the breeding of a 
part of the birds a week or two. This is shown by the fact that in spite of the eggs 
having been gathered in this way for many years, practically all the available space on 
Walrus Island is still occupied by the breeding hordes, and the various colonies in other 
parts of the Pribilofs show no appreciable loss. The birds are never killed on the rook- 
eries during the breeding season. 

GULLS. 

The gulls of economic importance are the Glaucous-winged Gull (Larus glaucescens) , 
the Red-legged Kittiwake (Rissa brevirostris) , and the Pacific or Black-legged Kittiwake 
(Rissa t. pollicaris) . The two last named occupy certain areas on all the islands, usually 



Buxl. U. S. B. P., 1914. 



Plate XVI. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 23 

breeding in separate colonies, and are about equally abundant. The Glaucous-winged 
gull nests mainly or entirely on Walrus Island and Sea Lion Rock, but resorts to St. Paul 
Island in numbers throughout the summer. It is seldom seen on St. George Island at 
that season. The eggs are sometimes utilized, and during the colder part of the year 
the birds are shot for food. 

The Kittiwakes are especially relished as food by the natives, and numbers are shot 
in early autumn as they fly along certain parts of the cliffs or cross from bay to bay 
over low portions of the islands. Their eggs are small and so difficult to secure that the 
birds suffer practically no loss in this respect. The continued abundance of the birds 
seems to be good evidence that the shooting of a few for food has had no serious effect. 

AUKLETS. 

Of the three species of auklets occurring in numbers on the Pribilof Islands, the 
only one of economic importance is the Least Auklet (Aethia pusilla). This bird is 
scarcely larger than a robin, but exists in such myriads and is so easy to capture that 
it is of considerable value as food, and its arrival in April is eagerly awaited. The birds 
occur commonly on St. Paul, nesting mainly among the bowlders on the beaches, while 
on St. George the numbers are so great as to be almost incredible. On the latter island 
fewer nest in the bowlder-covered beaches, but large areas nearly throughout the island 
are occupied by nesting colonies. Although the bird lays only one egg, the nesting period 
extends from late May to mid August, and probably at least two young are raised. 
Those taken for food by the natives are netted in spring as they fly along the cliffs, and 
the birds are practically unmolested during the breeding season. Many thousands are 
destroyed by the foxes throughout the summer, but in spite of the large numbers which 
meet death from these causes the birds continue to occur in such myriads that it is diffi- 
cult to conceive of any larger numbers existing. 

DUCKS AND GEESE. 

Several species of ducks and geese occur in comparatively small numbers on the 
Pribilof Islands either as scarce breeders or as more or less regular visitors during 
migration. Several species are of some importance, and of these may be mentioned the 
eider ducks (the King Eider, Somateria spectabilis, being the commonest) and the 
Emperor Goose (Philacte canagica). The latter is taken mainly in autumn. The eiders 
are more or less numerous during the autumn, winter, and spring, particularly in seasons 
when the ice packs closely about the islands. 

The eiders are birds of wide distribution, and the comparative few which are killed 
on the Pribilof Islands can not affect the species to any appreciable extent. The Emperor 
Goose is of rather restricted range, but so few visit the Pribilofs that the destruction 
there may be considered negligible. 

SHORE BIRDS. 

The list of shore birds, including sandpipers, turnstones, plovers, curlews, and god- 
wits, is rather extensive, but the only species which need consideration in the present 
connection are the Pribilof Sandpiper and the Pacific Turnstone. 

The Pribilof Sandpiper (Arquatella ptilocnemis) , as far as known, breeds only on 
these islands and 'on St. Matthew Island. The breeding season is passed by the birds 



124 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

mainly on the higher, more barren parts of the islands, where they suffer no harm from 
man. At the close of nesting, in August, the old and young congregate on the beaches, 
where they are shot in some numbers by the natives, being highly relished as food. 
Considering that the bird has such a limited habitat and is of unusual interest from a 
scientific point of view, it would seem wise to restrict somewhat its killing, especially 
since no hardship to the natives would result. This subject is discussed at greater length 
beyond. 

The Pacific Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) occurs during the spring migration, and 
in August and September when old and young are on their way to their wintering ground 
on the Hawaiian Islands. While on the Pribilofs the birds spend most of their time on 
the killing fields, where they feed on the larvae of flesh flies in the remains of the 
slaughtered seals. They become very fat and are much prized as food by the natives, 
but soon become wary and are not killed in any great numbers. 

CORMORANTS. 

The Red-faced Cormorant is the only cormorant resident on the islands. It is not 
very abundant, but is easily obtained in winter when other birds are scarce, and is, 
therefore, welcomed. It raises a large brood and appears to have few natural enemies 
besides man, and seems to maintain its numbers. 

MEASURES FOR PROTECTION. 

The fact that the Pribilof Islands now constitute a national reservation insures the 
continued preservation of the hordes of birds which annually go there to rear their 
young. Ever since the first occupancy of the islands by man, the supply of birds has 
been drawn upon to furnish large quantities of food for the people who have lived there. 

The fact alone that this drain has not resulted in the extirpation of a single species, 
and as far as known has not caused the appreciable diminution of any, seems to allay 
apprehension that any of the species are in danger from this cause. As a matter of fact 
the birds are probably subjected to less persecution now than at any time since the islands 
were first discovered. The habits of the natives have changed considerably in many 
respects. They have contracted a liking for imported food, and with this the need and 
desire for pursuing the birds has waned to a considerable degree. They do not now seek 
the eggs of the birds to any such extent as formerly; and they are losing their skill in 
taking birds in nets, by means of which they formerly secured great numbers. The intro- 
duction of firearms has, of course, offset this to some extent, but it is believed that 
fewer birds are killed now than formerly. 

Although most of the species are still very abundant and none seem to be in actual 
danger of extermination, one or two species should perhaps be accorded some measure 
of protection. The one of most importance is the Pribilof Sandpiper. This species 
breeds only on the Pribilofs and on St. Matthew Island. Apparently it goes no farther 
away to winter than the Aleutians, and it has, therefore, a very limited distribution. 
Its long-continued insular isolation under conditions which seem to be particularly favor- 
able has apparently resulted in the development' of a large and strikingly handsome 
species, and it is very desirable that it be perpetuated. Apparently it has not suffered 
appreciable diminution as yet, and the prospect of preserving it is therefore excellent. 
The general interest in the bird because of its restricted habitat and comparative scarcity 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 25 

causes it to be much desired by museums, and as it is practically impossible to obtain 
the species elsewhere, the collection of specimens for scientific purposes should be allowed, 
but it is believed that the killing of unlimited numbers for food should be prohibited. 

In the case of this or any species which future investigations may show to be in need 
of special consideration it would be well for the agent or naturalist to be given authority 
to prohibit entirely the killing of such species, or to extend to it the benefit of such 
restrictive measures as would meet the requirements. 

FISHING. 

Since early times the natives of the Pribilof Islands have obtained a part of their 
subsistence by fishing. The stormy and inclement weather which obtains during the 
greater part of the year, and the fog which almost continually enshrouds the islands, 
have prevented this industry from being prosecuted to the extent that the abundance 
of fishes probably warrants. Notwithstanding the unfavorable conditions and the lack 
of systematic effort, however, large quantities of fish have been taken, the aggregate 
food value of which has been very great. 

The species taken are mainly halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) which here appears 
to attain as large a size as is usual in other parts of its range. Examples weighing 100 
pounds or over are frequently taken, and one of 350 pounds is recorded. The Alaska cod 
(Gadus macrocephalus) which does not attain a large size, usually not exceeding 10 or 15 
pounds, is also taken in large numbers. Sculpins, perhaps of several species, are also 
abundant, and are frequently caught about both islands. Because of the weather con- 
ditions it follows that most of the fishing is done in the summer, but it can be successfully 
conducted in some seasons as late as the last of October, and in some cases even into 
December. 

So far as known, the best places for fishing have never been searched for systematic- 
ally, though the places now selected by the natives are of course in accordance with the 
experience gained in former years. The place usually resorted to by the people of St. 
Paul is a mile or two off East Landing, where both cod and halibut are taken. Off St. 
George there are two principal fishing banks, one about 3 miles to the eastward of the 
village landing, and about half a mile from shore where only cod are taken ; the other is 
2 miles west of the village, and half a mile from shore, and here the principal catch 
is halibut. This species is said to be seldom caught here during the winter. It is 
probable that other fishing banks await discovery. In former years the natives fished 
largely or entirely from their small skin boats or bidarkas, but they have now entirely 
abandoned the use of this craft, in the management of which their ancestors were so 
proficient, and now fish only from large rowboats. 

In order to give a clearer idea of the extent of the fishery than it is possible to gain 
from general statements, it may be well to set forth a few examples of the success which 
has attended fishing parties in past years. The following entries in the St. Paul Island 
log are selected from a very large number of records of fishing trips, very few of which 
were not to some extent successful: Parties were very successful in taking halibut 
on August. 9, 10, 11, and 12, 1876; on August 14, 8 large ones were caught, and on 
August 23, seven bidarkas took 30 halibut, some of them very large. On August 25, 
1880, between 1,000 and 1,500 pounds of halibut were taken, and on August 31, one 6 



126 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

feet long is noted. A number of halibut taken in September, 189 1, weighed from 50 to 
100 pounds each. In 1892, many cod were taken during May, the first of the season 
being caught on May 19. In September, 1901, two natives took 29 halibut in two days. 
In more recent years, extraordinary catches of halibut are recorded on August 6, 1908, 
and good catches of cod, halibut, and sculpins, on November 10, 1910. During the 
summer of 19 14 many very fine halibut and some cod were taken off East Landing on 
several occasions. 

As regards St. George Island, fewer records are at hand. The fishing places are 
more accessible than the St. Paul stations, and being closer to shore the fishermen are less 
exposed to danger from foggy weather and sudden storms, and the chances for success 
seem to be rather better than on St. Paul. Mr. G. Dallas Hanna, on June 8, 1914, on a 
trip which took four hours, including the time consumed in the round trip to the fishing 
grounds, caught on one hook 90 pounds of cod and 100 pounds of sculpin. On June 
20, 19 14, on a similar trip of five hours, he took on one hook 120 pounds of cod, 80 
pounds of sculpin, and 60 pounds of halibut. 

The success which attends the fishing as conducted at present seems to warrant the 
prediction that with systematic exploitation the fishery will prove of considerable 
value. The establishment of a cold-storage plant, which is needed for many reasons, 
would insure the economical utilization of the product. During the year ended June 
30, 1914, over 4,000 pounds of canned and salted salmon, in addition to a great quantity 
of preserved meats, all of which were of course imported, were consumed by the natives 
of the two islands. There seems reason to believe that this amount can be materially 
reduced by better utilizing the resources of the sea. Fish is relished by the foxes also, 
and as it has been proven by experiment that it can be easily dried on the islands, the 
use of the poorer part of the product for this purpose may prove feasible. All things 
considered, it seems certain that in the more systematic development of the resources 
of the islands which is demanded, the fisheries will prove of considerable value. 

INTRODUCTION OF NEW ANIMALS. 

The occupation of the Pribilof Islands by man early led to the introduction of 
various domestic animals, the presence of which has been of considerable advantage to 
the inhabitants. Another class of animals requiring consideration are those intended 
to furnish food for the foxes. Since the killing of seals has been limited to the number 
actually necessary for the support of the natives, the resulting hardship to the foxes 
has led to recommendations regarding the introduction of various small species which 
it was thought might supplement the reduced food supply of these valuable animals. 
Some experiments on a small scale have been attempted, but no success has as yet been 
achieved. It should be noted that in the consideration of the various species which 
might prove useful for this purpose, the important fact has been overlooked or dis- 
regarded that the Pribilof Islands are called upon to support a fox population far in 
excess of the normal. In a state of nature, a white or blue fox requires several square 
miles of territory for its support, while on the Pribilof Islands there are many foxes to 
each square mile. It is plain that any animals introduced here for fox food would need 
to become exceedingly abundant to be of any material benefit, and that while gaining 
a foothold they would have to contend against enormous odds. With the full signifi- 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 127 

cance of these self-evident facts before us, it seems plain that the chances of success 
attending the introduction of any animals intended to prove of benefit to the foxes are 
very small. The various species which have been introduced and those which have 
been recommended for introduction are discussed beyond. 

DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Horses and mules. — Draft animals, usually mules, have been used for many years on 
St. Paul to haul supplies from the landings to the warehouses, and for transportation to 
and from the more distant seal rookeries. The animals find abundant pasturage during 
five or six months of the year and are fed for the remainder of the year on imported 
food. 

It is believed that if the work were undertaken in a systematic way that a sufficient 
quantity of hay and ensilage could be put up annually to support the small herds of 
domestic stock during the winter. A coarse beach grass (Elymus mollis) is very 
abundant and grows luxuriantly. Unsuccessful attempts to make ensilage of this 
grass are reported, but since it is successfully put up on Kodiak Island at a cost of less 
than $1 per ton a there seems to be no reason why the process should not be successful 
on the Pribilofs if properly managed. It is practically certain also that hay can be 
made from some of the grasses which grow abundantly in certain localities. It must be 
conceded that favorable weather can not be depended on. Even in the best hay regions, 
however, periods of rainy weather often occur, but with proper management most of 
the crop can usually be saved. Directions for the proper care of hay under unfavorable 
weather conditions are given in Bull. 3 of the Alaska Experiment Stations, 1907. 
Although the conditions on the Pribilofs are perhaps less favorable than at Fort Kenai, 
to which place this bulletin refers, the drying properties of the air, when precipitation is 
not actually occurring, are very marked, and it is confidently believed that hay in 
moderate quantities can be made on the islands. 

The animals appear to withstand well the peculiar climate of the islands. They are 
indispensable since they furnish the only means of transportation at present available. 

Cattle. — A few cattle have been maintained on each island for many years, furnishing 
a supply of milk and occasionally beef for the tables of the employees. Like the horses 
and mules, the cattle have to be housed and fed during a large part of the year. All 
things considered, they do very well, but there is little doubt that the effectiveness of 
the herds would be increased if a breed were selected with reference to fitness for the 
peculiar climatic conditions. Instances of animals living for several years on the islands 
without care are on record, and while it is not desirable to adopt this method of treat- 
ment, it is plain that a greater measure of efficiency could be secured from a breed 
especially adapted to the rigorous climate. 

Sheep. — Small flocks of sheep, usually composed mainly of ewes, have been brought 
to the islands from time to time, but no attempt has been made to keep up the supply 
by breeding, although it is likely that this would be successful if a hardy race were 
selected. On one or two occasions sheep which have strayed away in the fall have 
survived the winter. This argues remarkable ability to withstand the severe winter 
conditions, and suggests that if a breed were selected with this factor in mind the herds 
might be kept up with less care than is now necessary. The question of attempting 

a Ann. Rept. Alaska Agric. Exp. Stations for 1907, p. 61, 1908. 

84512°— S. Doc. 980. 63-3 9" 



128 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

to maintain small herds of sheep on both islands is one that may well merit careful 
study. 

Swine. — For many years swine have been kept by the natives on both islands. 
The well-known omnivorous propensities of the animals enable them to pick up an easy 
living during the summer, as they usually have the run of the villages and the neigh- 
boring fields, where they secure a variety of vegetable food. The near-by killing fields 
are also drawn upon for a part of their subsistence. No prejudice against pork pro- 
duced from a diet of seal offal seems to have arisen in the minds of the natives, and 
perhaps has no just grounds for existence. 

There seems to be no valid objection to the raising of a limited number of pigs by 
the natives, but the careless habits of the people and the crowded nature of the villages 
tend to undesirable conditions with this industry unless there is very strict supervision. 

Cats. — These animals were early introduced on both islands and have thrived. 
They seem to have been ineffective in reducing the numbers of house mice which here, 
as elsewhere, are a great pest. No apparent benefit has resulted from the presence of 
the felines, nor has any particular harm been apparent, excepting the annoyance which 
always accompanies the presence of large numbers of cats. 

Poultry. — The Government, as well as many native families on both islands, have 
flocks of fowls which furnish their owners with a fair supply of eggs. Owing to the 
length and severity of the winter, against which no adequate protection is provided, it 
follows that the productivity of the fowls during the colder season is very limited. 
Many of the natives are obliged at this season to house their poultry in the attics of 
their own crowded homes, with results that may be imagined. 

The establishment of a large poultry house to be used by the community has been 
suggested. The large amount of animal food which will be available when seal killing 
on a commercial scale is resumed, would greatly simplify the problem of the main- 
tenance of a good sized flock, and with proper arrangements for the care of the fowls 
and the equitable distribution of the product it is evident that a large stock of poultry 
could be kept at slight expense. The project seems well worth consideration. 

WILD ANIMAU5. 

Hares and rabbits. — The introduction of hares, jack rabbits, cottontail rabbits and 
Arctic hares have at various times been recommended as a source of food supply for 
the foxes. On one occasion several years ago a number of jack rabbits from Kansas 
were shipped, but they died on the voyage. 

It is not believed that the introduction of either hares or rabbits would ever prove 
of any benefit to the foxes. The great number of foxes would make it very difficult to 
establish a colony of rabbits of any species. Furthermore, it is not believed that the 
winter climate of the Pribilofs, coupled with the meager food supply at that season, 
would favor the existence of any species excepting the Arctic hare. This animal is 
able to withstand conditions even more severe than those found on the Pribilofs, but 
even under the most favorable conditions never becomes really abundant, although 
occasionally a number of individuals, driven by stress of circumstances, may con- 
gregate in a particularly favorable place. The Arctic hare requires for its winter food 
an abundance of willow. Several species of these shrubs occur in a dwarfed condition 
on the Pribilofs, but the supply is by no means abundant. The cost of procuring a 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOP ISLANDS, 1914. I 29 

stock of hares for introduction, owing to the scarcity and wariness of the animal, would 
be very great; it would be difficult if not impossible to protect these after their in- 
troduction, and even in the event of their becoming established, which is scarcely 
possible, the islands would support only a limited number. The abnormally crowded 
condition of fox life on the Pribilofs has already been alluded to, and this fact has a 
sinister bearing on the practicability of adding to their food resources by introducing 
small mammals among them. The introduction of any species of hares or rabbits, 
therefore, can not be recommended. 

Ground squirrels. — The introduction of ground squirrels has been attempted on 
two occasions, but neither has proven a success. In 1899 some were brought from 
Unalaska and liberated on St. Paul, near the village. Their disappearance has been 
attributed to cats, but whether they were eaten by cats or foxes is immaterial. 

In the summer of 191 3 the assignment of G. Dallas Hanna for work on St. George 
Island afforded an opportunity to make another attempt, and 22 ground squirrels, 
including both sexes and different ages, were captured at Nushagak. Of these, four 
died from natural causes before their journey was begun. Various circumstances made 
it impracticable to provide small cages for the animals, and they were shipped in a 
single large crate. Although plentifully supplied with green food, they preyed on each 
other, and while this tendency was overcome to some extent by supplying them with 
meat, the stock of 18 had been reduced to 5 before they reached their destination. 
These 5, an adult female and 4 young, including both sexes, were liberated near the 
village on St. George Island in August. At least two survived the winter, and were 
seen on several occasions in early May, 19 14. They are not known to have been ob- 
served later ; during our visit in early August none were seen, and a careful search dis- 
closed no positive evidence of their presence. It is doubtful if any survived the sum- 
mer, and in view of the fact that numbers of foxes continually ranged in the vicinity of 
the spot where they had been observed, the destruction of the squirrels would seem to 
be inevitable. 

Although the two attempts which have been made to introduce ground squirrels 
have failed, there is little doubt that the animals could be established if brought in 
larger numbers and liberated in selected places where they could most easily find shelter 
in small natural rock cavities and where the foxes were least abundant. They are rapid 
breeders, and once established they might increase. But the fact that they retire in the 
autumn to deep underground burrows and would thus be unavailable as food during 
the entire winter and early spring — in other words, during the only part of the year 
when they would be needed by the foxes — seems to be an insuperable argument against 
their becoming useful as a source of fox food. 

Muskrats. — The project of introducing muskrats on the islands has received consid- 
erable consideration and has once been attempted, but without success. In the sum- 
mer of 1 91 3 G. Dallas Hanna captured seven muskrats near Nushagak for introduc- 
tion on St. George Island. Unfortunately the animals preyed on each other during 
transit until only one remained to be liberated, and this is not known to have survived 
the winter. 

Perhaps the most important factor bearing on the chances of survival of this animal 
is the suitability of the ponds where it must live. Those on St. George are believed to 



130 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

be so shallow that they freeze to the bottom, and if so, this makes them unsuitable for 
muskrats. Most of the ponds on St. Paul Island were surveyed by the late Dr. Hahn 
to ascertain their fitness for muskrats. The majority of those examined were found to 
be too shallow. The work was never completed, and two ponds which apparently are 
the best adapted to muskrats of any on the islands were not critically examined. One 
of these, Antone Lake, appears from a somewhat cursory examination to be suitable 
for the animals. Webster Lake is also a possibility, but is less likely to be favorable 
than the other. 

There is little doubt that the introduction of muskrats on St. Paul Island can be 
successfully accomplished, but its advisability is questioned. Muskrats seek their food 
in winter entirely beneath the ice, and, however abundant, could not be caught at that 
season by the foxes, while their habits at other times of the year are such as to render 
them almost immune from the attacks of any land animal. The native boys, however, 
could increase their earnings by trapping the animals, but it is somewhat doubtful if 
the number which the limited amount of suitable ground would support would justify the 
undertaking on this basis. At any rate, a more careful examination of the deeper lakes 
by some one familiar with the habits of muskrats should precede any further attempt 
to establish the animals. 

Sea otter. — This valuable animal played an important part in the discovery by white 
men of all the region bordering Bering Sea on the south and east. After its practical 
extermination from Kamchatka, the Russians in the middle of the eighteenth century 
gradually uncovered and devastated its haunts on the Aleutians and the neighboring 
groups until its growing scarcity in the more accessible regions led to its pursuit and 
virtual extinction in the uttermost parts of its range. At the time of the discovery of 
the Pribilof Islands, in 1786, sea otters were very abundant there, and as many as 5,000 
are said to have been taken from St. Paul during the first year of its occupancy. They 
were abundant also on St. George. They rapidly declined in numbers, and according to 
Veniaminoff had become scarce by 1811 and extinct within the next 30 years. Although 
the species apparently was practically exterminated on the Pribilofs about this time, 
small numbers remained and single individuals have been reported in a few instances 
even during recent years. According to the St. Paul log, a sea otter, the first observed 
for several years, was reported by fishermen on September 23, 1889. One was found 
dead at Rocky Point, St. Paul, in June, 1896, and in December of the same year a live 
one was reported close to shore in Southwest Bay. Skulls or other remains, probably of 
animals long dead, are still occasionally found. 

For some time after the commercial extermination of the sea otter on the Pribilofs 
many of the animals retained a foothold among the Aleutian Islands and in other parts 
of the North Pacific, but the incessant persecution to which the species was subjected 
gradually reduced it to the verge of total extinction. Now the pitiful remnant left is 
protected for a term of years in the hope that the species, which ranks among the most 
valuable of all fur bearers, may gradually repopulate its former haunts. 

It has been suggested that sea otters be restored to the Pribilofs. If the difficulty 
of securing a stock for this purpose could be overcome, the animals might be induced 
by protection to remain on or about the islands, but the project is a doubtful one. Otter 
Island, so named from the former abundance of the sea otter on its shores, seems to be 
eminently adapted to the peculiar needs of this animal, is uninhabited, and yet is close 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 13I 

enough to St. Paul to render its supervision practicable. It is not well adapted to foxes; 
the seals no longer resort to it, and even if they should do so, no conflict of interests need 
result. It is barely possible that an attempt to restore the sea otter to the Pribilofs, 
where formerly it was so abundant, might be successful. 

Mink and otter. — While it is possible that mink might be introduced on the Pribilof 
Islands, it is not believed that the attempt is advisable. The animals would undoubtedly 
gain an easy living in summer from the bird rookeries, but the well-known blood-thirsty 
proclivities of the animals would insure the destruction of such vast numbers of birds 
that the harm inflicted would be out of all proportion to the benefit gained. The lack of 
streams with their accompanying food supply, and the dearth of small mammals, would 
form insuperable obstacles against the maintenance of any number of mink during the 
winter. In short, the conditions on the Pribilofs are unnatural and on the whole unfa- 
vorable for mink, and their introduction can not be recommended. 

The objections to mink apply in a great measure to the land otter. The habits of 
this animal in winter are very similar to those of the mink. While otter live to a con- 
siderable extent on islands, their food is gained chiefly from fresh-water lakes and streams, 
and the absence of these from the Pribilofs is a strong argument against the advisability 
of attempting their introduction. 

Lemmings and other small mammals. — The black-footed lemming (Lemmus nigripes) 
is found on St. George Island only, where it sometimes becomes very abundant. Its 
introduction on St. Paul, where the conditions are essentially similar, has been advocated. 
It is said that a number of years ago lemmings from St. George were released on St. Paul 
on two occasions, but no evidence that they survived was ever noted. There seems to 
be no good reason, however, why they would not become established if liberated in 
sufficient numbers. Since, however, there is no evidence that the lemmings have ever 
been of any particular benefit to the foxes on St. George, the experiment would be 
interesting chiefly from a zoological standpoint. The species is known only from St. 
George Island, and its introduction on St. Paul would decrease the danger of its extermi- 
nation from any chance cause, a fate which frequently overtakes island species, and 
would afford an opportunity at some future time to study any effect on the species 
which its new habitat might induce. 

For the same reasons the Pribilof shrew (Sorex pribilojensis) , a tiny animal known 
only from St. Paul Island, might be transplanted to St. George. Much the same reason- 
ing holds true in regard to meadow mice (Microtus) , which are not found on the Pribilofs. 
Certain marshy areas on both islands seem admirably adapted to these animals, and there 
seems to be no reason why they should not succeed there, since they are abundant on 
several similar islands in Bering Sea and on some of the Aleutians. These species are in 
most cases peculiar to the island on which they are found. 

House mice were early introduced on both islands and have long been abundant, 
and a pest. The presence of so many cats does not seem to have acted as a check on their 
numbers. Rats seem never to have gained a foothold, although it is altogether likely 
that occasionally they are landed with cargo. 

Ptarmigan. — The introduction of ptarmigan on the Pribilofs has been suggested. 
While the general conditions as to climate and food are rather favorable than otherwise, 
it is believed that the great number of foxes would prevent the birds from establishing 
themselves or from increasing to any extent. It is likely also that the isolation of the 



132 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

islands from any other land masses would result unfavorably, since it is likely that the 
birds would attempt to migrate from the new habitat forced upon them, and in that 
event their loss would be inevitable. Therefore the project does not seem feasible. 

THE NATIVES. 

ORIGIN AND EARLY HISTORY. 

When the eager search for the unknown land resorted to by the fur-seal millions 
was rewarded by the discovery of St. George Island in 1786, no signs of human occupancy 
were found. St. Paul was not visited until the following summer, and although the first 
party which landed there is said to have found the remains of a recent fire, proving that 
they had been preceded by some chance visitors, no evidence that human beings had 
previously made the islands their home has ever been discovered. 

The exploitation of the mine of wealth thus fallen into the hands of the discoverers 
demanded the services of laborers — a people accustomed to the peculiar climate and 
inured to the life of hardship which must become their lot. The Russians turned natu- 
rally to the near-by islands, whose inhabitants, already in a state of virtual slavery, offered 
no opposition to the will of their masters. Unalaska and Atka islands furnished the bulk 
of the natives, said to be about 140 in number, who constituted the nucleus of the present 
population. Villages were founded at Staraya Artel (Old Settlement), Zapadni Bay, 
and Garden Cove on St. George; and on the North Shore, near Big Lake, and at Polovina 
and Zapadni on St. Paul. 

In 1799 the government of the whole region passed into the hands of the Russian- 
American Co. The various rival traders whose dependents had inhabited the different 
villages were banished from the islands and all the inhabitants on each island were finally 
gathered into single settlements, the sites of which are now occupied by the villages of 
St. George and St. Paul. In the early days the natives were in a state of practical 
bondage, and were in many respects worse off than slaves. They lived crowded together 
in semisubterranean huts, subject to the whims of their brutal masters. Scanty fires 
of driftwood and blubber, which added greasy smoke to the filth which naturally per- 
vaded their hovels, were their only means of cooking and keeping warm. In winter, 
crowded together in their squalor, neglected and unnoticed, they perished or survived 
as it happened, and when the sealing season came they slaughtered and skinned the seals 
for their masters until another winter rolled around. The number necessary for the work 
was kept up not by natural increase but by annual recruits from other parts of the region, 
including Sitka and Kodiak. On the heterogeneous mixture naturally resulting from 
the intermarriage of these diverse native peoples, their Russian masters, and to a less 
extent people of other nationalities who have since from time to time made the islands 
their home, have left their impress. The resulting combination is a people having many 
characteristics in common, yet probably including individuals as different in appearance 
and character as can be found in any isolated community of this size anywhere in the 

world. 

RELATION TO LESSEES. 

In 1870, shortly after the purchase of Alaska by the United States, the Alaska 
Commercial Co. was formed by the banding of several enterprising traders who had 
taken advantage of the cessation of Russian monopoly to gain a foothold on the islands. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 133 

To this company was given the exclusive right to take sealskins on the Pribilofs for a 
period of 20 years. The lease was framed with due regard to the moral rights of the 
native inhabitants. By its terms the Alaska Commercial Co. was required to furnish 
annually to the natives, free of charge, 25,000 dried salmon and salt and barrels for 
preserving a supply of meat; a school was to be maintained for eight months of the 
year on each island, and furnishing any spirituous liquor to the natives was forbidden. 
By further regulations the natives were to be employed in the work of sealing and 
were to receive 40 cents for each skin taken, the rate of wages for other work done to 
be agreed upon between the company and the natives; all provisions and merchandise 
were to be furnished at prices not higher than retail prices in San Francisco ; the natives 
were to receive free the necessary fuel and oil; all widows and orphans were to be sup- 
ported; free transportation to the Aleutian Islands was allowed; medicine and the 
services of a physician were to be supplied free of cost; dwelling houses were to be 
furnished rent free; no interference in their social or domestic relations or in their reli- 
gious ceremonies would be allowed, and they were to be accorded kind treatment and 
aided by precept and example to appreciate the advantages to be gained by proper 
conduct. 

An annual rental of $55,000, an internal-revenue tax of $2 for each sealskin taken, 
and certain other minor taxes were required of the sealing company. To keep a proper 
check on the operations of the company and to safeguard in all ways the interests of 
the Government and the rights of the natives, agents of the United States Treasury 
were stationed on each island. 

Thus raised from a life of degradation and misery to a condition of comparative 
comfort, the natives responded in a manner which is highly creditable to them. Already 
expert in sealing, the advantages of better food and shelter were soon apparent. The 
company was able to take its annual quota of 100,000 seals in from 40 to 50 working 
days. At the same time the natives acquired a taste for many imported foods hitherto 
unknown to them and adopted the manner of dress of the white inhabitants and grad- 
ually began to lose many of the more useful of their primitive habits and handicrafts. 

On the expiration of the lease of the Alaska Commercial Co. in 1890 a similar lease 
was given to the North American Commercial Co. for a further period of 20 years. Its 
provisions, as far as the privileges accorded the natives are concerned, were substan- 
tially the same as those of the previous arrangement, but the rate of compensation for 
the sealing and other work which the natives were fitted to perform was to be fixed by 
the Secretary of the Treasury. For several years following the advent of the new 
company comparatively few seals were killed and the natives were called upon to per- 
form a correspondingly small amount of labor. During the incumbency of the leasing 
companies a system of compensating the natives was developed which is now impos- 
sible of operation, but which has become so ingrained into the minds and customs of 
the people that it is difficult for them to accept or understand any other. The total 
sum due the natives for performing the work of sealing was divided into a certain num- 
ber of shares, a number considerably larger than the number of laborers. The work- 
men were divided by agreement among themselves, and supposedly according to their 
ability, into several classes, and from time to time received what was due them accord- 
ing to this arrangement. Some shares went to the church, others to the priest, and 
others to the widows and orphans. This arrangement did very well under the leasing 



134 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

system and while a large number of seals were being killed; some of the natives accu- 
mulated considerable sums which were deposited with the companies and bore interest. 
But the diminution in the herd necessitated a reduction in the quota, and during the 
modus vivendi an appropriation was made by the Government for the support of the 
natives. This continued to be done down to 191 1 ; the annual amount, at least during 
the later years, was $19,500. 

CONDITIONS UNDER GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT. 

The lease of the North American Commercial Co. having been terminated in 1910, 
the Government deemed it best to abandon the leasing system and accordingly took 
charge of all the activities on the Pribilof Islands. The special appropriation of $19,500 
was discontinued, but a part of the general appropriation for Alaskan seal and salmon 
fisheries was made available for the support of the natives. For this purpose the sum 
of $40,000 was set aside, which the natives were supposed to earn by taking the seal 
and fox skins and by miscellaneous labor. For some of this work the natives received 
cash, but the greater part was paid in provisions and merchandise drawn in the form 
of weekly allowances. In 19 12 the killing of seals, excepting the number actually 
needed for food, was prohibited, and the sealing work involved was reduced to a negli- 
gible quantity. The consequent necessity of making the natives dependent in a great 
measure on the bounty of the Government marks a decided backward step in their 
progress along many important lines. Some of them consider that the Government is 
bound to support them in any case, and as they can get very little beyond a mere liv- 
ing they do not feel that they should be called upon to do any work not directly con- 
cerned with sealing. Others are willing workers, but are dissatisfied because they can 
not attain a condition superior to that allowed their associates who make no special 

effort. 

PRESENT SYSTEM OF SUPPORT. 

The following extract from the report of Walter I. Lembkey, former agent in charge 
of the islands, as published in Appendix II of the Report of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Fisheries for 1913 (Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 797, pp. 141-148) 
states so clearly the present method of dealing with the natives that it may be quoted : 

PROBLEMS IN COMMUNISTIC SYSTEM. 

The instructions of the bureau provide that the natives shall be supplied, so far as funds will permit, 
with the necessaries of life to an amount sufficient to maintain them in comfort, due regard being paid 
to economy and thrift. To this end various supplies to be used by the natives, as fuel, food, clothing, 
etc., were purchased in San Francisco at the best wholesale rates obtainable and transported to the 
islands on the bureau's chartered steamer Homer. These supplies upon arrival at the islands were 
placed in the two general stores (one on each island), where they were marked for issue or sale at a price 
one-third above wholesale cost, including all discounts except for cash. They were then distributed 
after the methods hereafter detailed. The increase of one-third over the wholesale cost was made to 
cover cost of transportation and handling only. 

The instructions of the bureau further provided that from the supplies thus taken to the islands 
merchandise to the amount of $40,000 be furnished the native inhabitants for their support and main- 
tenance during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913. These supplies were not to be received by the 
natives as a gratuity but as a return for services rendered. Services such as might be performed in the 
taking of sealskins and in the management of the herd in general were considered the main labor for 
which the natives were to receive this support; but, as the killing of seals was to be greatly curtailed, 
the natives, in return for their support by the Government, were to be required to perform such other 



PUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 135 

labor of a nature to benefit the community generally as might become necessary or desirable. Indi- 
vidual natives, however, who were willing to perform such labor of a skilled or unskilled nature as 
might be necessary to the upkeep of the Government property and the maintenance of the stations in 
general were to be compensated individually in cash from funds other than the $40,000 set apart for 
the community support at the rate of, for skilled labor 25 cents an hour, and for unskilled 15 cents an 
hour. The skilled labor embraced that of carpenters, engineers, painters, and ironworkers, etc.; the 
unskilled mere laboring work requiring no special aptitude. 

The system involved in the foregoing arrangement for natives' support is one of almost pure com- 
munism. The main problem confronting those charged with its conduct was to support the people 
in such comfort and happiness as the resources would allow and at the same time to minimize those 
admitted evils of communal existence which, in this case, could easily result in reducing the island 
inhabitants to a mental condition of stolid apathy, and a physical condition of virtual peonage, if not 
slavery. 

If no labor were required of these people the problem would be simply to give gratuitously to each 
person supplies sufficient to insure his existence. It is necessary, however, at almost all times of the 
year to require some of them to perform services for which they receive no specific compensation, but 
merely a right to participate in the general fund. If all labor required of them were alike in character 
and amount and if all the natives could perform this labor with a like degree of proficiency, no special 
difficulty would be encountered. Some of the labor, however, requires aptitude and special training 
which some natives do not possess; also, some by reason of physical imperfections can perform less 
work even of a general nature than others, and some no work at all. To support the natives only to the 
extent that they perform service would be to allow some to suffer and others to starve because of ina- 
bility to work and therefore to earn. 

But if a helpless cripple and his family should not be allowed to starve, on the other hand a man of 
high efficiency should not be required to expend his best efforts for a compensation no greater than 
that which the cripple and his family receive for their bare maintenance in return for which they furnish 
no labor whatever, and which, too, the efficient would receive as a matter of course without rendering 
any service in return. Then, moreover, the fund for natives support is not large enough to allow special 
compensation to some and general support to all, but sufficient only to prevent suffering no matter 
what labor may be required of them. 

These and other questions, which perhaps appear trivial to the casual observer, become of vital 
importance to those managing the natives' affairs. It may be of interest to detail the methods which 
are used in the distribution of the fund for the support of the natives, all of which methods have been 
the subject of careful study. 

The $40,000 fund was considered as belonging to the community and to be used for its support 
without regard to the question whether the person so supported was or was not able to perform service 
in return. It was therefore divided between the two islands on a strict per capita basis; that is to say, 
the whole amount was divided into as many parts as there were natives on both islands, and each island 
was allotted as many of these parts as there were natives on that island. From this fund before dis- 
tribution, however, coal enough for both islands was paid for. This coal was turned over to the native 
community, and the community, through its chief men, was allowed to make distribution of it without 
official interference. No cash was paid from this fund except $1 apiece to each native man on Christmas 
and Easter, for church purposes, and a payment to a midwife of $5 for each baby born. 

From the amount remaining after the deduction for coal, a suit of clothes was given to each man 
and boy, each individual was provided with two pairs of shoes, each family with material enough to 
make underclothing for the children and women, and each person with a supply of rubber footwear. 
From the remainder an "emergency fund ' ' of perhaps $1 , 500 was set apart. What was left was available 
for purchase of food and clothing on regular issues. This remainder was divided into 52 equal parts, 
representing weeks in the year, thus fixing the amount that might be spent weekly for support of the 
whole population. 

The total number of persons to be supported was next ascertained from the census — two children 
being considered as one adult — and divided into the weekly allotment for the whole island, thus estab- 
lishing a per capita tentative allowance for each person per week. 

The number of individuals in each family was then ascertained, and the per capita amounts com- 
bined to give a basis for the expenditure for each family for the week. 



136 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

It having been demonstrated that a large family under the same roof can live more cheaply per 
capita than, a small one, a readjustment of amounts was made, deducting a certain sum from the large- 
family allotments and adding it to those of small families. In this way a final adjustment of allotments 
was reached, giving about $5 weekly to a family of two, and about $7.50 weekly to a family of six or 
seven. 

Having thus established the amount which each family may spend weekly, issues of food and such 
clothing as could be purchased out of the allowance were then made on Saturday of each week to the heads 
of families, each head being given an order for such supplies as he wished not exceeding his allowance, 
which order when taken to the store was filled and the merchandise represented thereon given to the 
person presenting the order. 

The emergency fund, already mentioned, was used to meet expenditures not contemplated in the 
regular allowance, such as occur in cases of death, sickness, marriage, childbirth, etc. 

In this way the amount available for support of the natives is expended, not in cash, as stated, but 
in merchandise itself. The amount is just about enough to support the population without want. It 
reaches a little more than $100 per capita. Everything to eat, to wear, and to keep the fires burning 
has to be transported over 2,000 miles, and the food is mostly in tins. Nothing edible except seal flesh 
can be obtained locally. It can be realized, therefore, that if the fund for natives' support is barely 
enough to provide the actual necessities of each person, little can be done toward encouraging and 
compensating extra effort or otherwise alleviating the objectionable features of communistic life in 
general. 

Where a number of persons share equally in the distribution of a general fund, as these natives do, the 
natural tendency of each is to take and use the whole of that share without regard to whether it is needed 
or not. There is no inducement for a native to strive through self-denial to exist upon less than his 
share from the general fund when such abstention would result simply in increasing the share of his 
less provident neighbor. The whole tendency of a scheme of this character is to produce an attitude of 
carelessness in the use of communal resources — in short, to create that attitude of mind which says: 
"As there is no reward for economy, let's get all we can. The other fellow will get it if we don't. " 

EXPERIMENTAL PLAN TO INDUCE THRIFT AND SELF-RELIANCE. 

This tendency toward shiftlessness, which is an inevitable result of these peculiar circumstances, 
has long been recognized, and efforts have been made to palliate it at least. In 1911 a plan was put in 
operation designed to induce the natives to save at least a small portion of their earnings. It was based 
upon the general principle that by reducing weekly and other issues of supplies to a minimum an unex- 
pended balance would be created, which balance at the year's end was to be distributed in cash among 
the earners according to their proficiency as workers. If even from a weekly allowance the native saved 
something, that saving was to be given him in cash at once. It was hoped he could be induced to open 
savings accounts with cash thus obtained, or at least to use it in purchasing some article not otherwise 
obtainable that would increase his happiness and comfort. 

This scheme was placed in operation on St. George during the winter of 1911-12. The results from 
a careful following of the plan are interesting. At the end of the first month in which the native men were 
informed that such savings as they made from their weekly allowances for family supplies would be 
paid to them in cash more than half the families in the village drew cash savings thus derived, the sums 
varying from $1 to as much as $8 or $9. They continued to do thus during each remaining month in the 
year, almost every family saving something out of the amount allowed for its support. 

Careful inquiries into the motives governing the making of these savings developed some interesting 
points. It seemed, on the whole, that the main object of the native was not to hoard the cash thus 
obtained by saving but, on the other hand, to get possession of the cash itself, which in many instances 
he at once took to the store to expend for perhaps the very articles he had denied himself in order to 
make the saving. Some few, of course, used the cash to purchase in San Francisco articles which could 
not have been issued to them had they not the cash. No savings accounts were created. If any sums 
were saved, they were secreted in the natives' houses. 

Some of the natives who made the largest savings had previously complained that their allowances 
were too small; those who have always been thrifty, however, redoubled their efforts to save, increasing 
their hoards regularly every month. But it was found that, to make these monthly savings, in some 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 137 

cases the children in the family were made to suffer through deprivation of proper clothing and some- 
times food. 

At the end of the year the sum of $632.48 was unused from the natives' fund and remained for dis- 
tribution. This amount was divided among the sealers, the first-class men receiving about $32 each and 
the lower grades in proportion. This money was nearly all spent in the store for articles of general use. 
No portion of it, as stated, was used to create or to increase savings accounts in bank. It is reported, 
however, that the natives were greatly pleased with the plan as operated and under it many of them 
came into possession of more money than they ever owned before. 

The net result of this one year's experiment is not large. It shows that the natives desire their 
earnings in cash rather than a mere credit. It shows also that if paid in cash for their labor in taking 
sealskins, etc., the greater portion, if not nearly all, of their money would be used for the same purpose 
for which the credit is used, namely, the purchase of the necessaries of life. It shows that under the 
present communal system the natives are not desirous of creating permanent savings funds because of 
their inability to profit greatly by the result of the self-denial necessary to create the fund. 

It must be stated that conditions were not favorable for carrying the operation of this plan beyond 
the mere point of inducing the natives to curtail their use of the necessaries of life to a minimum. It 
was impossible to demonstrate to them that any particular benefit would follow this saving, because 
there was nothing they might obtain with their savings except the bare necessities of life, of which they 
had deprived themselves in order to create the savings fund. And, having saved, all they could buy was 
what they could have had without saving. Under the present system it is not permitted to purchase 
for island use anything but the barest necessaries of life. Articles from the use of which the average 
citizen finds enjoyment or benefit, and by means of which he is able to bring his life above the level of 
mere animal existence, are not allowed to be purchased for sale on the islands. Neither can the native 
improve his mind and broaden his education by travel, because no means of transportation are available. 
His clothing is of a certain fixed grade each year; if he desires a better suit or an unusual article of 
clothing he can not purchase it because it is not in the store; nor can he order it unless through some 
cumbersome private arrangement almost impossible to make. In short, he is held down to the use of a 
greatly circumscribed class of merchandise, on an isolated spot of the universe, in which use he must 
live and die, practically without power to alter the condition. 

Why, therefore, should the native save money? Money has no value unless it can be" used as a 
medium of exchange. The mere hoarding of it induces no satisfaction or comfort to any normal person. 
The reward of self-denial exists in the possibilities for greater enjoyment and greater comfort created as 
the result of the self -discipline. If the native has no use for his money after saving it, he will not save 
it; neither will anyone. To carry out successfully any scheme of this character, it is necessary to 
broaden the possibilities of the native 's purchasing power. He must be able to buy desirable and attrac- 
tive articles at least to the amount of his savings. 

Everywhere, except to these people, a prize is offered for thrift. It should be held out to them, too. 
For example, it should be so arranged that the shiftless must wear poor clothing, but the provident may 
wear better. The provident, industrious man should be able to obtain better food than his careless 
and lazy neighbor. Under the present system this is impossible. This situation could be adjusted 
readily by a private concern, and it should present no more difficulties to the Government. 

NEED FOR BROADENED OPPORTUNITY. 

Since the killing of seals has been stopped on the islands, except a few for food, and because of the 
material reduction in the appropriation by Congress for the natives' support, the system of cash pay- 
ments has, unfortunately, been discontinued after only one year of trial. The building up of the moral 
and intellectual fiber of a people is a matter of generations, not of years, even under ideal conditions. 
In the case of these natives, not only should precept and example be afforded, but an intelligent readjust- 
ment of conditions on the islands should be made to give point and object to mere academic advice. 

It may seem from the foregoing that because no greater results were obtained from this experiment 
it is useless to attempt to lead the natives to greater self-reliance and thrift. It is believed, however, 
that such object is not so near an impossibility as supposed. The cause should be sought in the system, 
not the native. The instinct of self-preservation is as highly developed in these natives as in the more 
effete races, and this instinct forms the basis of all desire to lay by something of what is in hand to insure 



138 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

against future want. Under the present system the native expects that his future will be provided for, 
and has, therefore, no incentive to deny himself and no self-reliance. While no one would be willing 
to make the existence of these people a matter of doubt, on the other hand, it is thought that it can be 
so managed that the native would have to depend more upon himself through the removal of certain of 
the paternalistic offices performed hi his behalf by the Government. 

As the situation is at present, the native merely has to work and to draw his weekly rations. He 
might complain in order to get more, but beyond that he has no voice in the disposition of his earnings. 
All the managing of his resources is done in his behalf by the agent in charge, under departmental 
instructions, and the only open line of endeavor is to hoodwink the agent into giving him more than his 
share. This unnatural situation should be remedied by allowing the natives more voice in the man- 
agement of their domestic financial arrangements. It is believed, contrary to general opinion, that 
nearly all the native men are capable of handling their earnings in a thrifty and judicious manner, 
once they understand that it is necessary for them to do so or starve. Under this hypothesis it would be 
better for the native to receive his earnings, or at least a large portion of them , in cash at the close of each 
season, with the understanding that this sum must suffice to support him and family for a year; or monthly 
amounts could be given them with the same understanding. 

* * * Should a native be grossly improvident, a stated sum from his earnings should be set apart 
for use of his children. The Government should arrange to deposit any savings the native might make, 
or to expend them for such articles as the native may request to be ordered. At present this latter 
privilege is denied. 

In short, the strongly paternalistic attitude of the Government, together with the communal sys- 
tem of living, has robbed these people of all chance of self-improvement by destroying the incentive. 
Any effort along the lines indicated or others to increase this self-reliance will be salutary. It is con- 
ceived that a certain small percentage of receipts from the sale of skins taken by these people, set apart 
for them, either for their support or as a fund for the improvement of local conditions, or as a sheer bonus 
to increase efficiency and faithful cooperation, would be a paying investment. 

CASH PAYMENTS FOR SUNDRY LABOR. 

What has been said in the foregoing concerning natives' earnings relates wholly to the fund earned 
by the community in general, mainly from the taking of skins. Such work as the natives perform as 
laborers or skilled workmen in maintaining the station buildings, exclusive of their own residences, 
is paid in cash monthly. These sums, although small, are welcome as representing the only cash the 
natives receive, and because this desultory labor is the only means through which the native may get 
individual results from independent action. Cash thus obtained almost invariably is used to augment 
the regular allowance of supplies, and the work through which it is obtained is eagerly sought. Not to 
pay them individually for such work, which is not at all for their benefit, would be to destroy the feature 
which removes their system of existence from mere peonage. * * * 

In the above painstaking account of the manner of caring for the natives several 
points of vital importance are brought out, some of which may be briefly discussed. 
(1) The native wishes to be paid in cash for his work even though he may be impelled, 
either from inclination or necessity, to spend that cash almost at once. This tendency 
may be observed among native races anywhere as soon as money comes into use as a 
medium of exchange and is, of course, merely an indication that the native mind has 
grasped the fundamental idea underlying its use. He has labored and having obtained 
his reward, he would exchange it for something he needs or wishes. (2) Some of 
the people desire to accumulate their savings, showing that they possess a measure of 
thrift. (3) Some wish to exchange the results of their labor for articles other 
than mere necessities such as food and clothing, but that this is rendered impossible or 
difficult because the articles are not available on the island, and the delay and other 
difficulties of sending outside for the desired commodity are discouraging. (4) The 
opportunities for profiting from the possession of special talents or abilities are too limited, 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 139 

causing dissatisfaction to those possessed of such abilities and removing in a great degree 
the incentive which those less favored should have for striving to increase their earning 
capacity. 

Since 1 91 2 less money has been available for cash payments for miscellaneous 
labor than was contemplated. The necessities of life have been provided the natives, 
but with the cessation of sealing on a commercial scale they have been receiving their 
support in return for a minimum of labor. As before stated, the custom of receiving 
this support in return for the work of sealing has become so fixed in their minds that it 
is very difficult to make them understand that, in the absence of this work, other labor 
should be required of them. The fact that miscellaneous work has not always been re- 
warded, owing to lack of funds, has created much dissatisfaction, some of which is 
natural and justified. 

POPULATION. 

The native populations of the islands of St. Paul and of St. George on June 30, 
1914, were 192 and 116, respectively. During the preceding year on St. Paul there 
were 9 births, 1 arrival, and 8 deaths, 3 departures and 1 dropped by marriage, 
making a reduction of two in the population. During the same period on St. George 
there were 9 births and 3 deaths, an increase of 6. Of the 192 natives on St. Paul, 94 
were males and 98 females; and of the 116 on St. George, 58 were males and 58 females. 
Although the proportions of sexes are favorable for normal marriages, the regulations 
of the church forbid marriage within such distant degrees of relationship that in restricted 
communities such as these recruiting from outside bodies must often be resorted to. 
Thus the population of Unalaska has frequently been drawn upon. 

In addition to the native population, there were on June 30, 1914, on St. Paul 
Island, 10 white residents, 1 Chinese (cook) and 6 white visitors, and on St. 'George, 
5 white residents and 1 Chinese (cook). 

PRACTICAL ABILITY OF NATIVES. 

It has become somewhat usual to regard the native inhabitants of the Pribilof 
Islands as of little intelligence and practical ability, but this is by no means the 
case. It is true that they have failed to develop along many lines as rapidly as 
has been hoped, but to those who understand the conditions this is not surprising. 
That they do not understand the reasons for the various changes in methods of adminis- 
tration is only natural since some of these changes have affected them adversely, and the 
complex conditions which have given rise to them are to these isolated beings an abso- 
lutely unknown quantity. It is true that they are somewhat childish in their methods of 
reasoning, but this is always true of a semicivilized people having but a limited out- 
look. One of the most effective means of helping them to broaden their viewpoint will 
be the more widespread use of the English language. This matter is discussed elsewhere. 

Regarding their practical ability along mechanical lines there is much to be said 
in their favor. There is on the islands a good assortment of tools for working both 
wood and iron, and many of the natives are proficient in their use. Under intelligent 
supervision they can do practically any work necessary for the upkeep and enlargement 
of the station. The steam and gasoline launches are run by natives. The large amount 
of work done under the direction of James Judge in the autumn of 191 1 is a good illus- 



I40 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

tration of their varied ability. This work included the building of a bridge 168 feet 
long, including approaches; the remodeling, painting, and shingling of a large number 
of buildings, including dwelling houses, shops and offices; the laying of several concrete 
floors, pavements, and boat ways; and a great variety of minor jobs of carpentry, such 
as desks, book shelves, and filing cabinets. The women, under the instruction of the wives 
of the agents and others, have become expert dressmakers, and make a large part of 
their own and their childrens' clothing, and some of them do lacework and embroidery 
of a high order of merit. 

It will be necessary in order to put the sealing plant on an efficient basis to do a 
great deal of work of a varied character during the next few years, and in most of this 
work the natives may well be employed. After the resumption of commercial sealing 
most of the available force will be needed during June and July on the actual work of 
taking the skins, but during the spring and autumn the other work necessary may 
gradually be accomplished. 

During the incumbency of the Alaska Commercial Co. about 75,000 seals were 
taken annually on St. Paul Island. All the work of driving, killing and skinning this 
large number was done by about 70 men in from 40 to 50 working days. In late years, 
owing to the small number of seals killed, the ability of the natives has undeniably 
lessened, and care will be necessary to restore their old-time skill. 

KNOWLEDGE OF SEALS OVERESTIMATED. 

The native's knowledge of seals has been greatly exaggerated. It is, of course, 
undeniable that a native who has lived all his life among these animals acquires a great 
deal of information, but the average white man similarly situated would learn far more. 
Much of the lack of definite knowledge which has always prevailed, and which has been 
the source of a great deal of trouble, is due to the fact that agents and others in charge 
have been too ready to rely on the statements of the natives instead of ascertaining the 
real facts for themselves. The belief that he is supposed to know all about the seals 
gives the average native an exaggerated idea of his value in this regard and causes 
him to underestimate the true value of exact observation. An instance of this tendency 
came to our attention in August, 191 4. It was wished to make a drive from Reef 
Rookery, but the natives reported only a very few seals there, and said that it would 
be impossible to get a sufficient number. Our observations convinced us that this 
was an error and the drive was ordered, with the result that 1,600 bachelors were easily 
found. This may have been a case of deception rather than ignorance, or more probably 
a combination of the two, but it illustrates the fact that in matters requiring exact 
information it is unwise to rely wholly upon the natives. A white man soon learns 
to know as much of seals as the average native, and his judgment regarding seals, as of 
other matters, is greatly superior. For the work of killing, skinning, and curing, how- 
ever, the services of the natives can not well be spared. 

PROPOSED REMOVAL OF NATIVES IMPRACTICAL. 

The removal of the inhabitants to a reserve elsewhere has been suggested, but the 
proposal is subject to numerous objections. These islands constitute the only home 
that the inhabitants know, and almost without exception each one thinks that the 
Pribilof group in general, and his own island in particular, is the best place on earth. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. 141 

The greatest punishment that can be suggested is banishment to some other place. 
To remove these people would be cruel in the extreme, nor under present conditions 
would it be justified from any standpoint of expediency or economy. They would have 
to be supported elsewhere, while here as long as the seal herd endures they will be self- 
supporting and under proper management will be happy and contented. In the event 
of their removal it would be necessary to have their work done by temporary employees 
probably less suited to the peculiar conditions than are these people born and raised 
on the islands. As far as possible the reforms needed should be put in operation gradu- 
ally. It should be borne in mind that the ideas and habits of these people have back 
of them many generations of training under peculiar and somewhat adverse conditions, 
and that it is impracticable to change these habits abruptly or to settle the problems 
in regard to their management by transfer to a different and less favorable field. 

PRESENT APPROPRIATION INADEQUATE. 

The appropriation available for the Pribilof Islands is wholly inadequate to manage 
the business in an efficient manner. It is not enough that a certain quantity of pro- 
visions and other merchandise, varying according to the amount which can be spared 
for this purpose from a given year's allowance, be landed on the islands and doled out 
to them in weekly portions in exchange for what work they may that year be called 
upon to do. Even under present conditions, when no fur seals are taken except for 
food and when the fox herds are in poor condition, the net receipts from the sale of 
skins in 1913 were over $67,000. It would seem no more than reasonable with this 
amount of revenue actually being turned into the Treasury that the islands be allowed 
a substantial increase over the $40,000 now available. The system now followed in 
paying the natives for their services is merely a legacy from former times, with many 
of the objectionable features retained and with no improvements added. It does not 
meet the requirements of the situation, and is unsatisfactory alike to the natives and to 
the officials of the Government on the islands and elsewhere who have its administration 
in hand. This subject in its relation to the natives may here be considered briefly. 

From a generous appropriation the stores on the islands should be annually stocked 
with a supply of goods sufficient to last at least one year, and to provide against accidents 
and emergencies a surplus of the most essential articles should be kept on hand. This 
stock should include the staple articles of food, clothing, and other merchandise which 
experience has determined are most suitable for the purpose. Some arrangement 
should be made for the support of those unable to earn their living — the widows, orphans, 
and those crippled or otherwise incapacitated. This might be done by issuing rations, 
and probably it might be well, in view of the impracticability of furnishing them with 
steady work throughout the year, to issue a minimum ration to all the natives. They 
should then be paid in cash for all work performed at a fair rate of wage. They them- 
selves have petitioned that they be paid in cash for their work and be allowed to buy 
their provisions. Most of this cash almost at once will be expended in the store — in 
other words, will be returned to the Government — and after the first year it or its 
equivalent may be expended in paying for further labor or in the purchase of provisions. 

If the business of the islands were in the hands of a private concern, this is exactly 
the method which would be followed, and it should be possible for the affairs there to be 
administered by the Government in a manner equally efficient and simple. The details 



142 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

of such an arrangement will, of course, need to be worked out. A careful study of the 
conditions on the islands convinces one that the work necessary to put the plant on an 
efficient working basis will keep the natives employed for several years during the sea- 
sons when outdoor work is possible. 

FOOD REQUIREMENTS. 

The diminution of the seal herd and the consequent restriction of the killing of seals 
to the number considered necessary for native food has sometimes led both on St. Paul 
and St. George to so limited a kill as to be hardly sufficient for the maintainance of the 
community. As a result the use of large quantities of imported foodstuffs has been 
necessary. Thus, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, the natives on both 
islands consumed over 3,000 pounds of canned salmon, about 1,400 pounds salted 
salmon, 7,500 pounds canned meats, about 6,500 pounds salt beef, and over 1,000 
pounds of salt pork. While it would be inadvisable to stop entirely the importation 
of these articles of food, since the natives have acquired a taste for them and would be 
dissatisfied if they were withheld, it is plain that the quantity of these costly foods con- 
sumed would be greatly reduced if an abundance of seal meat, fresh or properly pre- 
served and which costs nothing, was furnished them. 

To ascertain the amount of seal meat really necessary for the natives, a conference 
was held on St. Paul with the agent in charge, Mr. Hatton, and with the native chief, 
John Stepetin. It appeared that a family of eight persons would consume in one month 
14 fresh seal carcasses or 7 salted ones; hence fresh meat would be eaten at the rate of 
i}i carcasses per capita per month and salt meat at half that rate or seven-eighths of a 
carcass per capita per month. 

As fresh seal meat is available for eight months in the year and salt meat must be 
relied upon for the remaining four months, it follows that the total amount of seal meat 
needed for one native for a year is 17.5 carcasses. This amounts to not more than one 
pound of meat free of bone per day for each person. A seal carcass as roughly dressed 
by the natives and including bone weighs about 35 pounds. St. Paul, with a population 
of 192 natives, is therefore entitled to 3,360 seal carcasses per year for native food, and 
St. George, with about half that number of natives, to about half that amount of meat. 
Scaling these figures to conservative round numbers, it seems not unfair to set the allow- 
ance for native food on St. Paul at 3,000 seals and on St. George at 1,500 seals, making 
a total of 4,500 seals for the native food on the two islands combined. The economical 
utilization of this meat would be greatly facilitated by the establishment of a cold-storage 
plant on each island. The natives also consume freely soda biscuits, sweet crackers, 
preserved fruit, jellies, and condensed milk. Sugar, candies, and sweetened foods of all 
descriptions have been used in considerable quantities in the home manufacture of an 
intoxicating drink called quass. Various means of stopping this custom have been 
attempted, but without complete success, although there is undoubtedly much less 

intemperance than formerly. 

HOUSING. 

The natives live in small wooden houses. With few exceptions these houses were 
built in the first few years of the incumbency of the Alaska Commercial Co. and are, 
therefore, about 40 years old. At that time the natives were living in their primitive 
barrabkies, a combination of sod house and burrow, compared with which these neat 



Buix. U. S. B. F., 19 14. 



Plate XVII. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 



143 



frame houses, small though they were, seemed like palaces. Even now they make very 
comfortable dwellings for small families. They are of one story, about 12 feet by 20 
feet, usually with an inclosed side hall or "calidor" through which is the single entrance. 
Windows at the front and back, and sometimes on the side opposite the entrance, light 
them fairly well. Most of them have been kept in fair repair, but in many instances the 
floors, sills, or roofs are defective. 

The native populations of the two islands are distributed in households of the fol- 
lowing numbers : 

Number and size of households on Pribilof Islands, IQ14. 





Size of household. 


Number 
of house- 
holds. 


Total 
popula- 
tion. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


On St. Paul 

On St. George 


2 

1 


7 
3 


14 
5 


14 
4 


6 
3 


2 
2 


4 
3 


1 
1 












5° 

24 


19a 
116 


I 



















It is evident that the houses, even though they are provided with a calidor and 
divided into two rooms, are too small for many of the families. A few of them have 
been enlarged and have a third room, but there is still entirely too much crowding for 
proper considerations of comfort, sanitation, or morals. The most striking instance of 
overcrowding was met with on St. George, where a house of four rooms, the largest 
room being n by 12 feet, the smallest 7 by n feet, contained a man, his wife, and 12 
children. The children were 8 girls, aged in years as follows: 18, 16, 9, 7, 6, 4, 2, and 
8 months; and 3 boys, aged 12, 10, and 5. This family had been assigned the largest 
native house in the village, but it was obviously much too small. 

The principle of meeting the needs of the various families by assigning to the large 
ones the larger houses seems to have been carried out with reasonable fullness on both 
St. Paul and St. George. The Government will, however, be obliged from time to time 
to undertake rather extensive repairing and rebuilding and it is suggested that under 
such circumstances greater variety be introduced into the new construction so that 
families of different sizes can be better accommodated than in the more nearly uniform 
houses at present available. 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION. 

The native houses are as a rule overcrowded and filthy, and in all cases they are 
unprovided with water and are poorly ventilated. They reproduce all the conditions 
of congested tenements in our worst city slums except that outside their doors there is 
an unlimited supply of uncontaminated fresh air. 

On St. George the water for village use is in part hauled from wells and in part 
taken in the midst of the village from a pipe which leads by gravity from a pond behind 
the settlement. On St. Paul the water has heretofore been hauled entirely from wells 
half a mile from the village. During the past year large storage tanks have been 
erected on the village hill and spring water is pumped into these by way of the radio 
station and is to be delivered by pipes at several points in the village. For cooperation 
in installing and maintaining this system the village is indebted to the Navy Depart- 
ment. At the time of inspection (July, 1914) this system was only partly installed 
and the water in the tanks was much discolored by the new wood. This state of affairs 
had brought the system into some disfavor with the natives, but there is no reason to 
84512°— S. Doc. 980, 63-3—10 



144 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

suppose that when it is in working order it will not prove a decided advantage over that 
of the past. With water carried in wagons, sledges, or on the back for half a mile it is 
no wonder that its use is limited and that filthiness is thereby encouraged. Too much 
emphasis can not be laid on the importance of establishing in each village a good supply 
of easily available water. 

If the water supply of the villages is meager, the means for disposal of waste is abso- 
lutely inadequate. Most native houses are provided with a privy, consisting of a pit in 
the ground covered with a small wooden structure. Many of the privies are filled 
and receive no further attention. Much of the waste, including that from cooking, is 
thrown on the ground just outside the houses. The result is that the whole settlement 
is permeated with filth. If underground drainage can not be provided, it seems that 
some form of waste collection and disposal ought to be instituted. Privies might be 
arranged with collecting pans and these, together with receptacles for household waste, 
ought to be emptied and the contents disposed of once or twice a week as a part of the 
community work. 

As matters are at present the natives find it easy to remain in a condition of much 
filthiness, but with a reasonably available water supply and a simple but adequate 
system for the disposal of waste in each village this condition might well be improved. 
The natives are resistant to all such changes and seem to harbor a deep-seated antipathy, 
if not a religious one, against having anything to do with community refuse. It is there- 
fore doubtful if they could be induced easily to take these steps in reform. Such measures 
would have to be enforced, and it would seem impossible to accomplish this without semi- 
military methods. If the Government provides village water and institutes a system 
of waste disposal, it might well declare the law of the land to be "Clean up and keep 
clean or you will be sent away." 

The results of the filthiness of both villages are seen in the reports of their respective 
physicians. At St. Paul about half the native population showed evidence of tubercular 
trouble, and intestinal disorders were very prevalent. St. George, though not reported 
in so detailed a manner, seemed to be in much the same condition as St. Paul. In both 
places the work of the physician was greatly handicapped, if not made entirely ineffective, 
by the fact that the patient was obliged to stay in a filthy house where little or no atten- 
tion was given to physicians' directions; a bath, for instance, ordered by the doctor was 
seldom if ever taken, for the reason that these people rarely bathe and see no relation 
between health and personal cleanliness. In cases of desperate sickness the priest is 
usually summoned, and if he declares that death is at hand the doctor's advice is entirely 
ignored. The invalid is kissed by most of the community and, if death follows, the same 
kissing is resorted to with the corpse. All these practices have religious significance to 
the natives, but they are unhygienic and render futile the best efforts of a physician 
bent on preventive measures. Improvement in these matters could be made by main- 
taining in each village a small hospital and inculcating through it some idea of clean 
living. A start in this direction has been made on St. Paul, where during the past 
season a small hospital building has been fitted up. The need for a hospital on St. Paul 
was so great that, although no appropriation was available, a fairly serviceable old 
building was moved and remodeled in 1914 and furnished as well as could be done by 
utilizing scattered material collected from various sources on the island. The physician 
in charge, to effect much, should have a semimilitary control over the community. 



Bull. IT. S. B. F., 1914. 



Plate XVIII. 




FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 145 

MORALS. 

The natives give the impression of an honest, docile body of people, devoid of the 
small vices of the poorer parts of American towns, but addicted to a certain amount of 
drunkenness and to sexual looseness. 

Though not supposed to have access to alcoholic drink, they brew for themselves, 
from the sugar and other sweets supplied them, an alcoholic beverage known as quass, 
which is the occasion of most of their drunkenness. From the reports of those whites 
who have wintered on the islands, it appears that quass debauches are of not infrequent 
occurrence. This practice could be suppressed only through the action of the natives 
themselves, and even its partial control presents many difficulties. 

Sexual looseness is seen in the considerable number of illegitimate births and in the 
prevalence of venereal diseases. So far as the natives are concerned, these conditions are 
due not so much to viciousness as to purely animal habits. In some respects the natives 
resemble children with the appetites of adults. They are reasonably honest; they are 
not vicious, but they indulge their appetites almost without control. Changes in these 
conditions can result only from racial improvement brought about through sanitary 
surroundings and proper education. 

RELIGION. 

The natives are members of the Russian Church. On each island there is a church 
building and priest answerable to the head of the American division of the Greek Church 
in New York City. The services are usually conducted in Russian with some Aleut 
interpretation. Each priest maintains with more or less regularity a Russian school 
which is chiefly concerned with teaching the Russian Church service. The priests have 
been extremely diverse; some have been self-seeking, deceitful, and cunning; others 
have been simple, kindly, and benevolent. All seem to be strongly conservative and 
oppose those steps in the social and educational organization of the islands that from 
the American standpoint mean progress. It is difficult to see how many needed improve- 
ments can be carried out on the islands without the cooperation of the church. If 
intelligent priests could be obtained and thoroughly sympathetic relations established 
with them, a most effective avenue for advance would probably be opened up. 

EDUCATION. 

The education of the natives, as the reports of the several school-teachers on the 
islands have shown, is not a simple task. School is in session for eight months each year, 
and the pupils in attendance range from 6 to 16 years of age. In the past year on St. 
Paul there were 26 boys and 16 girls enrolled, and on St. George 12 boys and 13 girls. 
The schoolhouses are single-room frame buildings, poorly and inadequately furnished, 
and in wretched condition, particularly on St. George. While the school on St. George 
can be managed by one teacher, that on St. Paul requires two, one of whom should be a 
woman. Some improvement has been accomplished during the present year on St. Paul 
by the utilization of a smaller building for the younger scholars, thus relieving somewhat 
the congestion. New school buildings with better equipment, or extensive repairs and 
enlargement of the old buildings, are urgently needed on both islands. Although the time 
devoted to school is nominally eight months, this period is considerably reduced by the 
large number of holidays. The total number of school days in the school year is about 



146 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

170, but during this period there are 25^ days of vacation, 4 American holidays and 2 1 % 
Russian Church holidays. These reduced the school days last year (1913-14) by i8>£ 
days. Besides this many name days fall in the school period, and as these are religiously 
observed, they cause each child an additional absence once a year. One of the teachers 
in particular has complained much about these holidays, but they are not more numerous 
than in German schools, which do not seem to have been seriously affected by them. 
In one respect the school year might be changed to advantage. The holiday period 
centers around the Russian Christmas (Jan. 6-14), a time of year when the days are 
very short and the light poor. A vacation covering these holidays might be given at 
this period, and the time thus taken might be added to the school year, in part at the 
beginning and in part at the end, thus increasing the year at periods when the season is 
more favorable than in the dark winter. 

The subject most taught in the schools is English, and the exercises deal with speak- 
ing, reading, and writing this language. Besides this, arithmetic, some geography, history, 
personal hygiene, and a little natural history have been tried. Mr. G. Dallas Hanna, the 
teacher on St. George, noticed that though the native children could learn with great 
ease to write after a copy and even spell difficult words, their real understanding of their 
performances was very slight. They were remarkable imitators, but otherwise of very 
low intelligence. He therefore spent much time in teaching them words and their uses. 
But even so simple a matter as this is not easily accomplished. Most schoolbooks are 
written and illustrated for children who live in a land where tree, river, dog, train, etc., 
are already things of experience. Not one of these objects is on the Pribilofs, and it is 
not surprising that a new language about strange things, many absolutely unknown to 
them, should be troublesome to inculcate. But the matter is rendered still more difficult 
from the fact that the native child on leaving school for the day hears nothing but Aleut 
and speaks nothing but Aleut till he returns to school the next morning. The daily 
speech of the native is Aleut with a few Russian and English words, and to such a 
native the English school must seem a most impractical and academic affair. 

This side of the educational situation was recognized by the teachers on both islands, 
and instruction in sewing and dressmaking for the girls and in making nets, working 
ropes, and working and tempering steel for the older boys and men were begun. It 
would seem that if the educational aim could be made more practical and the English 
language made incidental to this training, a more secure advance might be made. 
Certainly the common-school aims and methods in the States are not well adapted 
to the natives of the Pribilofs. 

Some improvement could doubtless be attained by the use of special readers, deal- 
ing more generally with objects which are familiar to the native child. 

The ability of the natives to use English is quite different on the two islands. On 
St. Paul about six, mostly old people, can speak no English, but about two-thirds of 
the total population speak the island's capacity of this tongue. About half the popu : 
lation can answer simple English questions, and five or six speak English well. It is 
easy to get an English answer on St. Paul; it is rather difficult on St. George. This 
difference is probably due to the greater frequency with which Government vessels call 
at St. Paul than at St. George. The native on St. Paul has considerable use for his 
English as compared with his brother on St. George. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 47 

CONCLUSIONS. 

It will be seen from the foregoing account that the people of the Pribilof Islands, 
though not natives, have for so long made the islands their home that they know- and 
recognize no other. They are a people still in a state of semicivilization, and consid- 
ering their limited environment they seem to be as well able to embrace its advantages 
and as successful in combating its disadvantages as is usual among such peoples. They 
constitute a heritage acquired by the United States with the islands and their valuable 
wild inhabitants, and considerations of economy and of humanity demand that they be 
accepted as such and managed with all possible wisdom and fairness. Many of the 
details of the present system of dealing with them are survivals of the past, and the 
conditions under which they developed are no longer existent. Many changes and 
improvements have been recommended by the agents and other officials, but in most 
cases they have not been accomplished, either on account of controversy, sudden and 
radical changes of regime, or small appropriations. Many changes in the methods of 
dealing with the natives seem to be necessary. Such changes should be instituted 
gradually, and in such a way that the natives will be able to perceive their fairness and 
expediency. In some respects they deserve more liberal treatment; in others they 
must be dealt with more firmly. In their management a great deal will depend on the 
personality of the officials in charge. 

The changes in methods which seem desirable have been pointed out in the fore- 
going pages. It is believed that the work necessary to put the sealing plant on an 
efficient basis and the resumption in the near future of commercial sealing, accompanied 
by a better system of compensation, and the opportunity of exchanging the reward of 
t^eir labor according to their desires will help to make the natives self-respecting and 
gradually lead to their betterment in many directions. By such a course the people 
'of the islands may become an entirely self-supporting, efficient, and happy community. 

SUMMARY. 

The results of the investigation of 191 4 may be summarized under two principal 
headings, (1) existing conditions and (2) conclusions. 

EXISTING CONDITIONS. 

The actual conditions on the Pribilof Islands as detailed in the foregoing pages 
may be stated briefly, as follows : 

(1) The herd of fur seals contains approximately 294,000 individuals, of which 
not less than 93,250 are bearing females. 

(2) The stock of adult males is small, and though there is no proof that breeding is 
thereby diminished, it is evident that adolescent males participate in it to a greater 
extent than is natural. There is every reason to believe that this condition will cease 
to exist in 1915. 

(3) The supply of idle bulls is small and insufficient for the service of the virgin 
cows, which must therefore mate either with the old bulls or with the adolescent half- 
bulls. There are good grounds for believing that this condition also will cease to exist 
in 1915- 



148 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

(4) The maintenance of a supply of harem bulls in the ratio of 1 bull to 40 
bearing cows meets all possible demands of safety and conservation. 

(5) The operation of the law of 191 2 has already resulted in a great increase of 
male seals. The number of young males is very large and increasing rapidly. Of those 
now living, enough will come to maturity in 191 5 to supply the needs of the herd for 
both harem and idle bulls. The next generation, coming to maturity in 1916, promises 
to exceed greatly the needs which will then exist and succeeding generations will furnish 
further excess. 

(6) The herd is in excellent physical condition. Seals of all classes appear healthy 
and robust. Mortality of pups was small and natural and no epidemic of any kind 
was prevalent. 

(7) Yearling seals were not found on the hauling grounds except in exceedingly 
small numbers and very late in the season. The evidence is practically conclusive that 
they rarely come to land at all until after the close of the killing season, July 31. 

(8) The increase in the number of bearing cows in 1914 was small and is probably 
due to an abnormal death rate among old cows as a result of former pelagic sealing. 

(9) Observation and handling in 1914 of seals branded with hot irons in 1912 shows 
that the marking of breeding reserves with a permanent brand is practicable. 

(10) With more facts available than at any previous time, it is conservatively 
estimated that when once proper proportions are established in the herd they may be 
continued by reserving 3-year-old males in numbers increasing at the rate of 8 per cent 
per annum, the reserve in any given season being 22 per cent of the number of bulls 
required for the cows of the previous season. 

(n) The method of killing seals is not objectionable from the humane standpoint, 
but shorter drives are desirable. 

(12) The system of weighing skins, introduced during the period of leasing, is 
antiquated, unreliable, and no longer necessary. A more economical and more trust- 
worthy classification can be made by measuring the dead animals before they are skinned. 

(13) The condition of the buildings on the islands, the means of local transporta- 
tion, and many of the methods of work are but little changed since the lessees left. 
They are the inheritance of obsolete conditions and in many cases unsuited to the 
demands of modern efficiency. 

(14) The fox herd is in poor condition and demands special care and study. 

(15) The reindeer herd is increased and in good condition. 

(16) The sea lions and certain of the birds need continued protection. 

(17) The natives constitute a serious problem demanding careful consideration; 
their present condition, while far from hopeless, is not creditable to the Government. 

(18) The resident employees on the islands have a heavy responsibility divided 
between the management of the seals and the government of the natives, each presenting 
special problems requiring a high degree of ability for their solution. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

As a result of the investigations of 19 14, the findings of which are summarized in the 
preceding section, the following conclusions seem justified: 

(1) There are good reasons both from the standpoint of economy and from that of 
the welfare of the seal herd to resume commercial sealing at once. Commercial sealing 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 149 

in which the growth and preservation of the herd would be practically guaranteed could 
be practiced under only two restrictions, namely that females should not be killed for 
their skins or for food, and that breeding bulls should be maintained in numbers sufficient 
to supply one to each 40 bearing cows. 

(2) The management of the seals and other animals of the Pribilof Islands needs 
to be placed in charge of a specially qualified officer and the management of the natives 
and the fiscal affairs might well be conducted by another. The officer in charge of seal- 
ing, in addition to physique and general good character, should have a deep interest 
in the problems he would have to deal with and a desire to make of them practically his 
life work. These qualifications are most readily found among naturalists, but general 
fitness for the position is more important than training as a zoologist. The position 
would have certain disagreeable features that are unavoidable, and in order to attract 
a man of the necessary ability, he should be well paid, should have certain perquisites, 
and should be detailed for service in Washington during the winter season so far as 
possible. The officer in charge of natives and fiscal affairs should be similarly qualified. 
Each should have at least one competent assistant. Complete division of authority 
being administratively impossible, the man in charge of sealing should be the senior 
officer on the islands, but the man in charge of fiscal affairs should have the same degree 
of freedom in his field that the physician and the school-teacher have in theirs. 

(3) The Pribilof seal herd is a property of great value warranting immediate liberal 
expenditures in preparation for a most promising future. The very prevalent idea that 
the fur seal is on the verge of extinction is not in accordance with the facts. The present 
size and condition of the herd is such that its complete rehabilitation may be confidently 
expected. Provisions commensurate with the needs and importance of the property 
involved are to be regarded as wise investments and curtailment of operations .at this 
time is not justified by conditions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The following list, though known to be incomplete, is believed to include most of the 
important titles relating to the fur seals of the Pribilof Islands which have appeared in 
English since the purchase of Alaska. No attempt has been made to include references 
to all the minor laws and regulations or resolutions of Congress, and the list is known to 
be especially lacking in this respect. Articles in magazines and other periodicals of a 
popular nature have not, as a rule, been included. No bibliography relating to the 
Pribilof fur seals has ever appeared, and therefore the publication of the present list, 
despite its limitations, seems justified. 

The work of compiling the list has been done almost entirely by Miss Rose M. 
MacDonald, librarian of the United States Bureau of Fisheries. 

1868 Bulkley, Charles S. 

St. Paul's Island, Alaska [Report by Charles S. Bulkley and Charles M. Scammon] 1867-1868. 
Washington, 1868. 16 p. (40th Cong., 2d sess., House Misc. Doc.) 

1869 U. S. Congress. House. Committee of Ways and Means. 

St. Paul and St. George, Alaska. Letter from Frank N. Wicker to Hon. Robert C. Schenck, 
with copy of report made to the Solicitor of the Treasury relative to the Islands of St. 
Paul and St. George, Alaska. Washington, 1869. 3 p. (41st Cong., 2d sess., House 
Misc. Doc. 11.) 



150 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. 

1870 Alaska Commercial Co. 

Letter from the Alaska Commercial Company, by N. L. Jeffries, their attorney, to Hon. 
Nathan F. Dixon, Chairman Committee on Commerce, H. R. 1870. 25 P- 
Dall, William Healey. 

Alaska and its Resources. Boston. 1870. xn, 627 p. illus. pis. 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee of Ways and Means. 

Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, in answer to resolution of the House of 
December 5 [1869] transmitting a copy of the report of the late special agent [H. H. Mc- 
Intyre] of his department for Alaska. [Supplementary report concerning the islands of 
St. Paul and St. George, and the fur seal: p. 11-17.] Washington, 1870. 18 p. (41st 
Cong., 2d sess., House Ex. Doc. 36.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Commerce. 

Fur-seal fisheries of Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior in answer to a resolu- 
tion of the House, of February 9, 1870, transmitting a copy of a portion of Vincent Colyer's 
report relating to the fur-seal fisheries of Alaska. Washington, 1870. 12 p. (41st Cong., 
2d sess., House Ex. Doc. 144.) 
U. S. War Department. 

Report of Major General George H. Thomas [relative to seal life, natives and military posts 
on the islands of St. George and St. Paul] September 27, 1869. (In Report of the Secre- 
tary of War for 1869. Washington 1870. p. 113-121.) 

1871 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Commerce. 

Alaska seal fishery lease. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, in relation to the leasing 
of the Alaska seal fishery. Washington, 1871. 24 p. (41st Cong., 3d sess., House 
Ex. Doc. 108.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Commerce. 

St. Paul Island, Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting a report 
of the special agent [Charles Bryant] of the Treasury Department, stationed at St. Paul 
Island, Alaska Territory, in charge of the seal fishery. Washington, 1871. 7 p. (41st 
Cong., 3d sess., House Ex. Doc. 122.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Commerce. 

Fur-seal fisheries, Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting copy of 
report of the special agent [Charles Bryant] in charge of the fur-seal fisheries at the islands 
of St. Paul and St. George, Alaska. Washington, 1871. 9 p. (42d Cong., 2d sess., 
House Ex. Doc. 122.) 

1873 U. S. Treasury Department. 

Report on the Prybilov group, or Seal Islands, of Alaska. By Henry W. Elliott. Wash- 
ington, 1873. [125] pages, plates. (Date on cover 1875.) 

1874 Scammon, Charles Mellville. 

The marine mammals of the north-western coast of North America, described and illus- 
trated: together with an account of the American whale-fishery. By Charles M. Scam- 
mon . . . New York, 1874. 319, v. p. illus., xxyn pi. (6 double) incl. front. 

1875 Anti-Monopoly Association of the Pacific Coast. 

A history of the wrongs of Alaska. An appeal to the people and press of America. Printed 
by order of the Anti-monoply association of the Pacific coast. San Francisco, 1875. (The 
operationsof Hutchinson, Kohl & Co. , and their successors, the Alaska commercial company, 
in connection with the fur-seal islands.) 43 p. 
U. S. Congress. House. 

Alaska seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of the Navy, transmitting a copy of the 
report by Lieut. Washburn Maynard, U. S. N., on the subject of the Alaska seal fisheries. 
Washington, 1875. 23 p. (44th Cong., 1st sess,, House Ex. Doc. 43.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Territories. 

Letter from the Secretary of War, transmitting a report of the commanding general [O. O. 
Howard], Department of the Columbia, of his tour in Alaska Territory in June, 1875. 
Washington, 1875. 33 p. (44th Cong., 1st sess., House Ex. Doc. 12.) 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER UFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 151 

1875 U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

A report upon the condition of affairs in the Territory of Alaska. By Henry W. Elliott, 
special agent Treasury Department. Washington, 1875. 277 p. (Published also as part 
of 44th Cong., 1st sess., House Misc. Doc. 83.) 

1876 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

The Alaska commercial company . . . Report . . . [Relating to the lease made between 
the United States and the Alaska commercial company, of the right to kill fur seals on 
the islands of St. George and St. Paul, in Alaska]. Washington, 1876. 143 p. (44th 
Cong., 1st sess., House Rept. 623.) 
U. S. Congress. House. 

. . . Seal-fisheries in Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in 
response to resolution of the House of Representatives, information relative to the seal- 
fisheries of Alaska. [Washington, 1876. 478 p.] (44th Cong., 1st sess., House Ex. Doc. 
83.) Contains: "A complete list of papers on file in the office of the Secretary of the 
Treasury, in the Alaska business since the date of the lease of the Alaska Commercial Com- 
pany, August 3, 1870, to the present date." 

1880 Allen, Joel Asaph. 

History of North American Pinnipeds. A monograph of the walruses, sea-lions, sea-bears, 
and seals of North America. Washington, 1880. xvi, 785 p. (Department of the Interior. 
U. S. Geological and Geographical survey of the territories. Misc. pub. no. 12.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in answer to a resolution of the Senate 
of March 9, 1880, the report of Capt. Bailey upon the number, occupation, and condition 
of the people of Alaska; the report of the Supervising Surgeon General Marine Hospital 
Service on the same subject; also report of Special Agent Otis upon the illicit traffic in 
rum and firearms. Washington, 1880. 7 p. (46th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 132.) 

1881 U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Report of the cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, by Capt. 
C. L. Hooper . . . Washington, 1881. 71 p. plates, fold, chart, fold, tables. 
Elliott, Henry W. 

. . . The history and present condition of the fishery industries . . . The seal-islands of 
Alaska. Washington, 1881. 176 p. illus., xxix pi. 2 fold. maps. (Tenth Census of the 
United States.) 
Taylor, W. B. 

Letter published in the Wenona (Illinois) Index, October 20, 27, and November 3, 1881; 
Descriptive of a trip to the seal islands of Alaska. Towards the North Pole. The ocean, 
the sea, the natives (Alutes). The seal, skins, etc. Wenona Index Extra. 

1882 Elliott, Henry Wood. 

... A monograph of the seal islands of Alaska. Reprinted, with additions, from the 
report on the fishery industries of the tenth census. Washington, 1882. 4 p. 1., 3-176 p. 
illus., xxix pi. 2 fold. maps. (U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Special bulletin 
176.) 

1883 U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Cruise of the revenue steamer Corwin in Alaska and the N. W. Arctic Ocean in 1881 . . . 

Notes and memoranda . . . Washington, 1883. 120 p. front, illus., plates (partly col.) 

[Treasury Dept. Doc. 429.] 
Swan, James G. 

Report of investigations at Neah Bay, Wash. , respecting the habits of fur seals of that vicinity, 

and to arrange for procuring specimens of skeletons of Cetacea. (In Bulletin of the United 

States Fish Commission for 1883. Washington, 1883. Vol. rn, p. 201-207.) 

1884 Elliott, Henry Wood. 

Report on the seal islands of Alaska, by Henry W. Elliott. (In U. S. Census Office. 10th 
census, 1880. °[Census reports] Washington, 1884. [v 8] 2 p. 1., 3-188 p. illus., plates, 
fold, maps.) 



152 BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1886 U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to Senate resolution of 
December 13, 1886, report by Agent Tingle on condition of the seal islands of Alaska in 
1886. Washington, 1886. 4 p. (49th Cong., 2d sess. Senate Ex. Doc. 7.) 

1887 U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to Senate resolution of 
December 13, 1887, Special Agent G. R. Tingle's report on the condition of the seal 
islands of Alaska in 1887. Washington, 1887. 12 p. (50th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Ex. 
Doc. 31.) 
U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

. . . Report of the cruise of the revenue marine steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the 
year 1885. By Capt. M. A. Healy, U. S. R. M., commander. Washington, 1887. (Gen- 
eral report of operations of vessel for the protection of the seal fisheries and sea-otter hunt- 
ing grounds, by M. A. Healy.) 102 p. plates (partly col.) 2 fold. maps. (49th Cong., 
istsess., House Ex. Doc. 153.) 
Canada. 

Correspondence relative to the seizure of British American vessels in Bearing Sea by the 
United States authorities in 1886. Ottawa, 1887. cover-title, 47 p., fold. map. 

1888 U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to Senate resolution 
of December 13, 1S88, information about Indians in Alaska. [Report of Geo. R. Tingle, 
special agent of the Treasury Department, of the operations of the fur-seal islands of Alaska, 
for the year ending July 31, 1888, p. 2-5.] Washington, 1888. 6 p. (50th Cong., 2d sess., 
Senate Ex. Doc. 30.) 

1889 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. 

. . . Investigation of the fur-seal and other fisheries of Alaska. Report from the Committee 
on Merchant Marine and Fisheries of the House of Representatives. Washington, 1889. 
L, 415 p. pis. charts. (50th Cong., 2d sess., House Rept. 3883.) 
U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

. . . Report of the cruise of the revenue marine steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in 
the year 1884. By Capt. M. A. Healy. Washington, 1889. 128 p., front, plates. (Partly 
col.) (50th Cong., 1st sess., House Misc. Doc. 602.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury transmitting, in response to Senate resolution 
of January 17, 1889, report of Special Agent George R. Tingle on condition of the seal 
islands of Alaska in 1889. Washington, 1889. 5 p. (50th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. 
Doc. 90.) 
U. S. President. 

Message from the President of the United States, transmitting, in response to Senate resolu- 
tion of January 2, 1889, a report upon the seal fisheries in Bering Sea. [Washington, 1889] 
281 p. (50th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 106.) 

1890 U. S. Department of State. 

Seal fisheries of Behring Sea. Message from the President of the United States transmitting 
a letter from the Secretary of State, with accompanying papers, touching the subjects in 
dispute between the Government of Great Britain in the Behring Sea, including all com- 
munications since March 4, 1889. Washington, 1890. 96 p., fold. map. (51st Cong., 
1st sess., House Ex. Doc. 450.) 
U. S. Department of State. 

Seal fisheries of the Behring Sea. Message from the President of the United States trans- 
mitting a letter from the Secretary of State submitting the official correspondence between 
the Government of the United States and the Government of Great Britain touching 
the seal fisheries of the Behring Sea since the nineteenth of July last. Washington, 1890. 
53 p., 2 fold. maps. (51st Cong., 2d sess., House Ex. Doc. 144.) 

1891 U. S. Congress. Senate. • 

Letter from the Acting Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to a resolution 
of the Senate, reports concerning the condition of seal islands of Alaska. Washington, 
1891. 35 p. (51st Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 49.) 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 53 

U. S. Department of State. 

Great Britain, fur-seal fisheries; modus vivendi respecting fur-seal fisheries in Behring 
Sea. Signed and proclaimed at Washington, June 15, 1891. [Reprint, 1896.] 2 p. 

1892 Act to amend act to give effect to award rendered by Tribunal of Arbitration at Paris, under 

treaty between United States and Great Britain, concluded at Washington February 29, 
1892, for purpose of submitting to arbitration certain questions concerning preservation 
of fur seals. (In Stat. L., vol. 28, p. 64.) 
Hart, Albert Bushnell. 

. . . Extracts from official papers relating to the Bering Sea controversy. 1790-1892. 
New Yorl^, 1892. 26 p. (American history leaflets . . . Ed. by A. B. Hart and 
E. Planning . . . no. 6.) Caption title. 
U. S. President. 

Message of the President of the United States, transmitting the convention of February 29, 

1892, between the United States and Her Britannic Majesty, submitting to arbitration the 
questions which have arisen between those Governments concerning the jurisdictional 
rights of the United States in the waters of Bering Sea, etc.; and also transmitting recent 
correspondence upon that subject with the British Government. Washington, 1892. 
102 p. map. [52 Cong., 1st sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 55.] 

1893 [Blowitz, H. G. S. A. O. de.] 

The Behring Sea arbitration. Letters to the Times by its special correspondent; together 
with the award. Reprinted by permission of the proprietors. London and Toronto. 

1893. 87, [1] p. 
Carter, James Coolidge. 

Fur-seal arbitration. Oral argument of James C. Carter ... on behalf of the United States 
before the Tribunal of Arbitration convened at Paris under the provisions of the treaty 
between the United States of America and Great Britain, concluded February 29, 1892. 
Paris, 1893. 379 p. 
Elliott, Henry W. 

Report on the condition of the fur-seal fisheries of the Pribylov Islands in 1890. Produced 
on April 4, 1893, by the agent of the United States to the Tribunal of Arbitration con- 
vened at Paris. Paris, 1893. xv, 338 p. 
Great Britain. 

Behring Sea Arbitration . . . London, 1893. Foreign Office. United States. Nos. 1-8, 

10-11.) 

No. 1. — Case presented on the part of the Government of Her Britannic Majesty to the 

Tribunal of Arbitration . . . between Her Britannic Majesty and the United States 

of America. [C. 6918] 

No. 2. —Report of the Behring Sea Commissioners of June 21, 1892. (With maps and 

appendices.) [C. 6919] 
No. 3. — Counter case presented on the part of the Government of Her Britannic Majesty 
to the Tribunal of Arbitration . . . between Her Britannic Majesty and the United 
States of America. [C. 6920] 
No. 4. — Argument presented on the part of the Government of Her Britannic Majesty to 
the Tribunal of Arbitration . . . between Her Britannic Majesty and the United States 
of America. [C. 6921] 
No. 5. — Map of the northern portion of the north Pacific Ocean, annexed as part of the 

appendix to the case of Her Majesty's Government. [C. 6922] 
No. 6. — The case of the United States, including the reports of the Behring Sea Com- 
mission ... [C. 6949] 
No. 7. Counter case of the United States ... [C. 6950] 
No. 8.— Argument of the United States ... [C- 6951] 
No. 10. — Award of the Tribunal of Arbitration. [C. 7107] 

No. n. — Papers relating to the proceedings of the Tribunal of Arbitration. [C. 7 161] 
Myers, L. W. 

Seal catch, 1893. (In Consular Reports, 1893, vol. 43, p. 32, 320-321.) 



154 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1893 Myers, L. W. 

Sealskin industry. (In Consular Reports, 1893, vol. 43, p. 164-165.) 
United States. 

Behring Sea Arbitration. Argument of the United States before the Tribunal of Arbitration, 
convened at Paris under the provisions of the treaty between the United States of America 
and Great Britain, concluded February 29, 1892. Presented to both Houses of Parliament 
by command of Her Majesty. London, 1893. ivp.,327p. (United States. No. 8, 1893.) 
Gt. Brit. Parliament. Papers by command. C. 6951. 
Bering Sea Tribunal of Arbitration. 

. . . Opinions of Mr. Justice Harlan at the conference in Paris of the Bering Sea Tribunal of 
Arbitration, constituted by the treaty of February 29, 1892, between Her Britannic 
Majesty and the United States of America . . . Washington, 1893. 228 p. 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

. . . Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, in response to Senate resolution of February 
8, 1893, transmitting several reports of special agents to the seal islands. [Washington] 
1893. 140 p., 3 pi. (part, fold.) (52d Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 107.) 
Welling, James Clarke. 

The Bering Sea Arbitration; or, "Pelagic Sealing," juridically considered according to a 
particular analogy of municipal law, by James C. Welling . . . Washington, 1893. Cover- 
title, 18 p. (Columbian University studies.) 
Wishart, Andrew. 

The Behring Sea question, the arbitration treaty, and the award . . . Edinburgh, 1893. 
54 p., front, (fold. map). 

1894 U. S. President. 

Proclamation (of act to give effect to award of Tribunal of Arbitration at Paris concerning 

fur seals) April 9, 1894. 
Same; with license for sailing vessels on reverse. 
Same; In Stat. L-, vol. 28, p. 1245-1247. 
Myers, L. W. 

Seal catch for 1893 and prospects for 1894. (In Consular reports, 1894, vol. 44, p. 276-279.) 
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

Bering Sea controversy. Letter from the Secretary of State, transmitting, pursuant to House 
resolution dated December 15, the correspondence touching the Bering Sea controversy. 
[Washington, 1894.] n p. (53d Cong., 3d sess., House Ex. Doc. 132.) 
U. S. Department of State. 

Agreement between the United States and Russia for modus vivendi in relation to fur-seal 
fisheries in Bering Sea and north Pacific Ocean. Signed, Washington, May 4, April 27, 1894. 
Proclaimed May 12, 1894. 4 p. 

1895 U. S. Bering Sea Tribunal of Arbitration. 

. . . Fur-seal arbitration. Proceedings of the Tribunal of Arbitration, convened at Paris, 
under the treaty between the United States . . . and Great Britain, concluded at Wash- 
ington, February 29, 1892, for the determination of questions between the two Govern- 
ments concerning the jurisdictional rights of the United States in the waters of Bering 
Sea. . . . Washington, 1895. 16 vols, plates, fold, maps, facsims., tables, diagrs. (U.S. 
53d Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 177, pt. 1-16.) 

(Each volume is preceded by the t.-p. and index of "The Executive Documents . . . 
Senate . . . 1893-94." Vol. 16 has half-title: Facsimiles of documents in the Alaskan 
archives, Department of State of the United States. To accompany the case and counter- 
case of the United States as presented to the Tribunal.) 
Roberts, W. P. 

Seal catch of 1894. (In Consular Report, 1895, v. 47. P- 84-87.) 
U. S. Bureau of Navigation. 

[Laws relating to] seal fisheries. (In Navigation Bureau. Laws relating to Navigation and 
Merchant Marine, 1895. p. 219-226.) 



PUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 155 

1895 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Bering Sea Tribunal. Letter from the Secretary of Treasury, transmitting, pursuant to 
House resolution dated December 11, 1894, information relating to the Bering Sea Tri- 
bunal, convened at Paris in 1893. Washington, 1895. 4 p. (53d Cong., 3d sess.", House 
Ex. Doc. 243.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. 

. . . Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting a communication from the Sec- 
retary of State in regard to an appropriation for the payment by the United States of all 
claims that may be made by Great Britain arising out of the Bering Sea controversy. 
Washington, 1895. 2 p. (53d Cong., 3d sess., House Ex. Doc. 310.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Information relating to fur seal in Bering Sea. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, 
transmitting, pursuant to House resolution of the 23d ultimo, additional information relat- 
ing to fur seal in Bering Sea. Washington, 1895. 5 p. (53d Cong., 3d sess., House Ex. 
Doc. 306.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur-bearing animals in Alaska. . . . Report [to accompany H. R. 8909] (to amend act to 
prevent the extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska, as substitute for H. R. 8633). 
Washington, 1895. 3 p. (53d Cong., 3d sess., House Rept. 1849.) 
U. S. President. 

. . . Message from the President of the United States, in response to Senate resolution of 
January 8, 1895, transmitting information relating to the enforcement of the regulations 
respecting fur seals, adopted by the Governments of the United States and Great Britain 
in accordance with the decision of the Tribunal of Arbitration convened at Paris, with other 
information called for by said resolution. . . . Washington, 1895. 438 p. 4 fold. pi. 
(53d Cong., 3d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 67.) 
U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing during the season of 1895. Wash- 
ington, 1895. 10 p. (On verso of t.-p.: Treasury Depart. Doc. 1742. Office of the Sec- 
retary. Division Revenue-Cutter Service.) 
U. S. State Department. 

Modus vivendi between the United States and Great Britain respecting fur-seal fisheries in 
Bering Sea June 15, 1891 (printed 1895). 2 p. 
U. S. Treasury Department. Division of Special Agents. 

Information respecting pelagic catch of fur seals, April 12, 1895. 2 p. (Dept. circular 75.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Division of Special Agents. 

Amendment to circular giving information respecting pelagic catch of fur seals. September 
19, 1895. 1 p. (Dept. circular 154. 1895.) 
1896 Brice, John J. 

Remarks on the movements and breeding grounds of the fur seal, based on observations made 
while on the United States naval patrol of Bering Sea in 1894. By J. J. Brice. . . . Wash- 
ington, 1896. p. 573—577. (Appendix 7. Extracted from the Report of the U. S. 
Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1894.) 
Elliott, Henry Wood. 

Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to the House resolution 
of the 22d instant, a copy of the report of Henry W. Elliott on the condition of the fur-seal 
fisheries of Alaska, together with all maps and illustrations accompanying said report, 
January 27, 1896. . . . Ordered to be printed. Washington, 1896. 240 p. 48 pi. 14 
maps (partly fold.) (54th Cong., 1st sess. House Doc. 175.) 
Found also in U. S. Treasury Dept. Special Agents Division. Seal and salmon fisheries 
and general resources of Alaska. . . . Washington, 1898. 
Stejneger, Leonhard Hess. 

The Russian fur-seal islands. By Leonhard Stejneger . . . Washington, 1896. 148 p., 66 pi. 
(partly fold). (Extracted from U. S. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1896.) 



156 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1896 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Lease of Alaska seal islands, etc. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, replying to the 
House resolution of the 7th ultimo in regard to the lease of the seal islands and the policing 
of Bering Sea. Washington, 1896. 3 p. (54th Cong., 1st sess., House Doc. 197.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur-bearing animals in Alaska . . . Report <to accompany H. R. 32o6>(from Committee 
. . . favoring bill, to amend act to prevent extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska 
[by providing for commission to arrange modus vivendi, and for destruction of herd in 
default of same]) February 20, 1896. Washington, 1896. 2 p. (54th Cong., 1st sess., House 
Rept. 451.) 
U. S. Congress. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur seals. A bill to amend an act entitled "An act to prevent the extermination of fur- 
bearing animals in Alaska," and for other purposes. Hearing before Committee on Ways 
and Means . . . Bill under discussion: H. R. 3206. Washington, 1896. 21 p. (54th 
Cong., istsess., House Rept. 3206.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Act [Senate bill 2997 making appropriations for commission] to provide for fulfillment of 
treaty between United States and Great Britain signed February 8, 1896 [as to Bering 
Sea controversy], approved May 7, 1896. (In Stat. L., v. 29, p. 115.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

. . . Letter from Henry W. Elliott, of Cleveland, Ohio, relative to condition and driving 
of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea, Alaska. April 14, 1896. Washington, 1896. 
6 p. (54th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 215.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Joint resolution to authorize scientific investigation of fur-seal fisheries. Approved June 8, 
1896. (54th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 155.) Also in Stat. L., v. 29, p. 475. 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

. . . The Vice President presented the following letter from Acting Secretary of the Treasury, 
inclosing a communication from N. L. Jeffries, attorney for the North American Commercial 
Company, lessee of the islands of St. Paul and St. George, Alaska, protesting against the 
proposition to destroy fur seals by order of the United States, as contemplated by bill 
3206, which recently passed the House. [Washington, 1896.] 1 p. (54th Cong., 1st sess., 
Senate Doc. 162.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

Report <to> accompany H. R. 32o6>(from committee favoring bill to amend "act to prevent 
extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska ' ' [by providing for commission to arrange 
modus vivendi, and for destruction of herd in default of same]). Washington, 1896. 1 p. 
(54th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Rept. 402 [pt. 1]). 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

Views of the minority, <to accompany H. R. 32o6>(adverse to House bill 3206, to amend "act 
to prevent extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska " [by providing for commission 
to arrange modus vivendi, and for destruction of herd in default of same]), April 16, 
1896. Washington, 1896. 7 p. (54th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Rept. 402, pt. 2.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur-seal fisheries . . . Report <to accompany H. Res. i9i> [favoring joint resolution to 
authorize scientific investigation of seal herd]. Washington, 1896. 1 p. (54th Cong., 
istsess., House Rept. 2095.) 
U. S. President. 

Proclamation [declaring sec. 1956, Revised Statutes, to be applicable to waters designated 
in award of Tribunal of Arbitration under treaty between United States and Great Britain 
concluded Feb. 29, 1892; concerning] fur-seal fisheries, April 14, 1896. Washington, 1896. 
2 p. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 157 

1896 U. S. Treasury Department. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Fur-seal, sea otter, and salmon fisheries. Acts of Congress, President's proclamations, regu- 
lations governing U. S. vessels, acts of Parliament, orders in council, pertaining to the 
fur-seal fisheries in Bering Sea and north Pacific Ocean, sea otter regulations, laws- as to 
salmon fisheries in Alaska. Washington, 1896. 78 p. [Treasury Dept. Doc. 1850. Office 
of Division of Revenue-Cutter Service.] 
U. S. Treasury Department. Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing during season of 1896. Washing- 
ton, 1896. n p. (Treasury Dept. Doc. 1836.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Statistics relating to Bering Sea seal fisheries, being tables W-GG accompanying annual 
report of Secretary, 1895. [Washington, 1896.] 43 p. 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Reports of agents, officers and persons, acting under the authority of the Secretary of the 
Treasury in relation to the condition of seal life on the rookeries of the Pribilof Islands, and 
to pelagic sealing in Bering Sea and the north Pacific Ocean, in the years 1893-1895. 
Washington, 1896. 2 pts., vm, 379, 154 p. 23 pis. n maps and atlas. (54th Cong., 
istsess., Senate Doc. 137.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Commission on fur-seal investigation. 

Observations on the fur seals of the Pribilof Islands. Preliminary report by David Star. 
Jordan . . . commissioner in charge of fur-seal investigations for 1896; aided by . . . 
Leonhard Stejneger and Frederic A. Lucas . . . Jefferson F. Moser . . . Charles H. 
Townsend . . . George A. Clark . . . Joseph Murray . . . Washington, 1896. 69 p. 
fold. map. (On verso of t.-p.: Treasury Depart. Doc. 1913. Office of the Secretary.) 

1897 Macoun, James M. 

[Report, by James M. Macoun, to the minister of marine and fisheries, Canada, of an exami- 
nation of the fur-seal rookeries on the Pribilof Islands in 1896.] Report presented Janu- 
ary 12, 1897. (In Compilation of Documents. Alaskan seal fisheries. U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries. ) 
Macoun, James M. 

[Report by Mr. James M. Macoun to the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Canada, of an 
examination of the fur-seal rookeries on the Pribilof Islands in 1897.] Report presented 
September 25, 1897. (In Compilation of Documents. Alaskan seal fisheries, U. S. Bureau 
of Fisheries.) 
Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth. 

Report by Professor D'Arcy Thompson on his mission to the Behring Sea in 1896, dated 
March 4, 1897. [London, 1897.] 39 p. chart. 
United States. 

Fur-seal arbitration. In the matter of the claims of Great Britain against the United States 
of America before the Bering Sea claims commission. Argument for the United States 
in reply. Washington, 1897. iv, 496, iv p. (Counsel for the United States: Don M. 
Dickinson, Robert Lansing, C. B. Warren.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Revenue from rental of the seal islands of Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury 

transmitting, in answer to a Senate resolution of January 5, 1897, information relative 

to the revenue derived from the North American Commercial Company, by the rental of 

the seal islands of Alaska. Washington, 1897. 12 p. (54th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 81.) 

U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Act [2612] prohibiting killing of fur seals in north Pacific Ocean. Approved December 29, 
1897. (In Stat. L., vol. 30, p. 227, 229.) 
U. S. President. 

. . . Protection of fur seals in Bering Sea. Message from the President of the United 
States transmitting, in response to resolution of the Senate of May 25, 1897, a report to 
the Secretary of State, accompanied by copies of correspondence of record in the Depart- 
ment of State, touching the protection of fur seals in Bering Sea and the north Pacific 
Ocean. Washington, 1897. 67 p. (55th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 40.) 



158 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1897 U. S. President. 

Protection of fur-seal herd in Alaska. Message from the President of the United States, 
transmitting, in response to Senate resolution of the 17th instant, a report from the Sec- 
retary of State touching the reply of the British Government in regard to failure of the 
negotiations of the Paris tribunal to protect the fur-seal herd of Alaska. February 20, 

1897. [Washington, 1897] 2 p. (54th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 142.) 
U. S. Department of State. 

Agreement between United States and Russia for modus vivendi in relation to fur-seal 

fisheries in Bering Sea and north Pacific Ocean. Signed Washington . ■■ ' 1894, pro- 
claimed May 12, 1894 [reprint, Washington, 1897]. 4 p. [English and French.] 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing and sea-otter hunting during 
season of 1897. Washington, 1897. 12 p. (Treasury Depart. Doc. 1920.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Statistical tables. Fur-seal catch, season of 1896. List of vessels engaged, with other sta- 
tistical information showing total pelagic catches from American and Asiatic herds since 
1868 and land catch, Pribilof Islands, since 1870, etc. Washington, 1897. 38 p. (Treas- 
ury Depart. Doc. 1932.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Prohibition of killing of fur seals in north Pacific Ocean and of importation of fur-seal skins 
taken in such waters. Dec. 30, 1897. (Treasury Department, Division of Special Agents. 
Dept. circular 214.) 
Same (In Treas. Dept. Fur seals, fur-seal islands of north Pacific Ocean, 1898 [1899]. Pt. 1, 
p. 246-248.) 
U. S. Treasury Department, Revenue-Cutter Service. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing and sea- otter hunting during 
the season of 1897. Washington, 1897. 12 p. (Treasury Dept. Doc. 1920.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Answer to resolution relative to revenue derived from the North American Commercial Com- 
pany by rental of seal islands of Alaska. Jan. 23, 1897. 12 p. (54th Cong., 2nd sess. 
Senate Doc. 81.) 
U. S. Treasury Department, Special Agents Division. 

Report on the rookeries of the Commander Islands, season of 1897, by Leonhard Stejneger. 
Washington, 1897. 17 p. (On verso of t.-p.: Treasury Depart. Doc. 1997. Office of the 
Secretary, Special Agents Division.) 

1898 Barrett-Hamilton, Gerald Edwin Hamilton. 

Report by Mr. G. E- H. Barrett-Hamilton on his mission to the Russian seal islands in 1897. 
[London, 1898.] 67 p., map. (Appendices: 1. Extract from report of N. C. Waxmuth, 
acting commander of the Kommandorski Islands, dated August, 1897 (section m). 
n. Drives at the Commander Islands in 1897. 111. Memorandum of seals taken on the 
"Rookeries" by vessels sailing from or putting in to Japanese ports (comp. by H. J. Snow, 
of Yokohama), iv. Statement of prices obtained at the fur Seal-skin sales on the 9th 
December, 1897 (C. M. Lampson and Co.). v. List of photographs, vi. Map of North 
Rookery, Bering Island, by Leonhard Stejneger.) 
Great Britain. 

Joint Statement of conclusions signed by the British, Canadian, and United States delegates 
respecting the fur-seal herd frequenting the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. London, 

1898. S p. 

International Bureau of the American Republics. 

. . . Alaska. (Handbook No. 84, 1897.) [Washington, 1898] 133 p. front (fold. map). 
([U. S.] 55th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 178, pt. 13.) 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 159 

1898 Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth. 

Despatch from Prof. D'Arcy Thompson forwarding a report on his mission to Bering Sea in 
1897. [London, 1S98] 15 p. (U. S. No. 1, 1898.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Award of commissioners appointed pursuant to convention of February 8, 1896, between 
United States and Great Britain for settlement of claims in virtue of convention of Febru- 
ary 29, 1892 [on Bering Sea controversy], Washington, 1S98. 15 p. (55th Cong., 2d 
sess., Senate Doc. 59.) [Summary of claims by the Secretary of State and text of con- 
vention of February 8, 1896, are included.] 
U. S. President. 

Seizure of British ships in Bering Sea. Message from the President of the United States, 
transmitting, in response to the resolution of the Senate of February 1, 1898, a report from 
the Secretary of State, with accompanying papers, relating to the work of the commission 
appointed pursuant to the convention of February 6, 1896, between the United States 
and Great Britain for the settlement of claims presented by Great Britain against the 
United States by virtue of the convention of February 29, 1892. Washington, 1898. 94 p. 
(55th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 164.) 
U. S. President. 

Bering Sea awards. Message from the President of the United States, transmitting a report 
from the Secretary of State in regard to the award of the commissioners appointed 
pursuant to the stipulations of the convention of February 8, 1896, between the United 
States and Great Britain, providing for the settlement of the claims presented by the latter 
against the former in virtue of the convention of February 29, 1892. Washington, 1898. 
15 p. (55th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 59.) 
U. S. Department of State. 

Fur seals in Bering Sea. Letter from the Secretary of State, transmitting a corrected copy 
of Senate document no. 40, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session, in relation to the protection 
of fur seals in the Bering Sea, and requesting that the same be reprinted. [Washington, 
1898.] 3 p. (55th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 40, pt. 2.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Commission on fur-seal investigations. 

Second preliminary report of the Bering Sea fur-seal investigations by David Starr Jordan, 
assisted by Leonhard Stejneger, Frederic Augustus Lucas, and George Archibald Clark, 
1897. Washington, 1898. 48 p. (Treasury Dept. Doc. 1994.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska . . . Washington, 1898. 4 vols, 
illus. plates (partly col., partly fold.) ports, maps, charts. (55th Cong., 1st sess., House 
Doc. 92, pt. 1-4.) 

Contents. — v. 1 . Reports on condition of seal life on the Pribilof Islands by special Treasury 
agents . . . 1868 to 1895 . . . by D. S. Jordan, v. 2. Reports on seal and salmon fisheries 
. . . and correspondence between the State and Treasury Departments on the Bering Sea 
question . . . 1895 to . . . 1896, with comments on that portion thereof which relates 
to pelagic sealing by D. S. Jordan, v. 3. Reports by H. W. Elliott and Lieut. W. Maynard, 
U. S. N., on the fur-seal fisheries, etc., of the Pribilof Islands, and by Rev. S. Jackson on 
"Reindeer in Alaska" and "Education in Alaska," with comments on Elliott's and 
Maynard 's report by D. S. Jordan, v. 4. Reports by W. G. Morris, I. Petroff, C. H. Town- 
send, F. W. True, J. J. Brice, and L. Stejneger on international resources of Alaska and 
the fur-seal fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean, with comments on the reports of Townsend, 
True, and Brice by D. S. Jordan. 
U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Statistical tables. Fur seal catch. Season of 1897. Washington, 1898. 30 p. (On verso 
of t.-p.: Treasury Department, Office of the Secretary, Doc. 2009. Division of Special 
Agents.) 
84512°— S. Doc. 980, 63-3 11 



160 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1898- U. S. Treasury Department. Commission on fur-seal investigations. 

1899 The fur seal and fur-sealislands of the North Pacific Ocean. By David Starr Jordan . . .com- 

missioner in charge of fur-seal investigations of 1896-97. With the following official asso- 
ciates: Leonhard Stejneger and Frederic Lucas, of the U. S. National Museum. Jefferson 
F. Moser ... in command of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross. Charles H. 
Townsend, of the U. S. Fish Commission. George A. Clark, secretary and stenographer; 
Joseph Murray, special agent. With special papers by other contributors. Washington, 
1898-99. 4 v. fronts, (v. 1, 3) illus. plates, maps, diags., and atlas of 14 fold., charts 
(No. 3214-3227). 
Pt. 1-4: Treasury Dept. Doc. 2017. 

Atlas of charts has t.-p.: Report of the fur-seal investigations, 1896-1897. Charts of the 
islands and fur-seal rookeries of St. Paul and St. George, Pribilof group, Alaska. Prepared 
by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey from surveys by Will Ward Duffield and party in 
the summer of 1897. Washington, 1899. 
» Contents. — pt. 1. The history, condition, and needs of the herd of fur seals resorting to the 
Pribilof Islands, by David Starr Jordan and George Archibald Clark . . . pt. 11. Obser- 
vations on the fur seals of the Pribilof Islands, 1872-1897, as extracted from the log of St. 
Paul Island, and as recorded in the daily journal of the commission of 1896 and 1897. 
pt. m. Special papers relating to the fur seal and to the natural history of the Pribilof 
Islands, pt. IV. The Asiatic fur-seal islands and fur-seal industry, by Leonhard Stejneger. 

1899 Townsend, Charles H. 

The American seal herd and pelagic sealing. (In Report of the Commissioner of Fish and 

Fisheries for 1898. Washington, 1899. p. cxxiv-clxv.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Annual Report of the Supervising Special Agent for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1899. 

Washington, 1899. (Seal Islands of Alaska, p. 7-8.) 19 p. (On verso of t.-p.: Treasury 

Depart. Doc. 2158. Special agents.) 

1900 U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Annual Report of Supervising Special Agent for fiscal year ended June 30, 1900. Wash- 
ington, 1900. (Seal fisheries of Alaska, p. 7-9.) 30 p. (Treasury Depart. Doc. 2204.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing during the season of 1900. 
Washington, 1900. 6 p. 

1901 U. S. Treasury Department. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing during the season of 1901. Wash- 
ington, 1901. 6 p. 
U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Annual Report of the Supervising Special Agent for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901. 
Washington, 1901. 30 p. (Treasury Dept. Doc. 2255.) 

1902 U. S. Congress. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur seals of Alaska. Hearing before the Committee on Ways and Means, Fifty-seventh 
Congress, first session. Statement of Mr. Henry W. Elliott and appendix . . . Washing- 
ton, 1902. 19 p. (57th Cong., 1st sess., House.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur-bearing animals in Alaska. June 2, 1902. Committed to the Committee of the Whole 
House on the state of the Union and ordered to be printed . . . Report <to accompany 
H. R. I3387>. Washington, 1902. 8 p. (57th Cong., 1st sess., House Rept. 2303 [pt. 1]). 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur-bearing animals in Alaska. June n, 1902. Referred to the Committee of the Whole 
House on the state of the Union and ordered to be printed . . . Views of the Minority 
<to accompany H. R. I3387>. Washington, 1902. 5 p. (57th Cong., 1st sess., House 
Rept. 2303, pt. 2.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. 

Regulations governing vessels employed in fur-seal fishing during the season of 1902. Wash- 
ington, 1902. 6 p. 



PUR SEALS AND OTHER WEE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, I914. l6l 

1902 U. S. Treasury Department. Special Agents Division. 

Annual Report of the Supervising Special Agent for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1902. 
Washington, 1902. (Seal fisheries of Alaska, p. 7-9.) 29 p. (On verso of t.-p.: Treas- 
ury Depart. Doc. 2308. Special agents.) 

1903 XJ. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Navigation Bureau. 

Seal and salmon fisheries. (In Navigation Bureau. Laws relating to navigation and mer- 
chant marine. Washington, 1903. p. 252-263.) 
Jordan, David Starr. 

Fur seal as an international issue. By D. S. Jordan and George Archibald Clark. (In Inter- 
national Quarterly. New York, 1903. vol. 7, p. 220-230.) 

1904 U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

To permit action to be commenced by American citizens for vessels seized in Bering Sea. 
Report from the Committee on Foreign Relations amending S. 3410. Washington, 1904. 
6 p. (58th Cong., 2d sess., Senate Rept. 2128.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Territories. 

. . . Conditions in Alaska. Report of subcommittee of Committee on Territories appointed 
to investigate conditions in Alaska . . . [and hearings before subcommittee . . .] January 
12,1904. — Ordered to be printed. Washington, 1904. 2 v. in 1. fold. map. (58th Cong., 
2d sess., Senate Rept. 282.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

Fur seals. Report [from the Committee on Foreign Affairs amending S. J. R. 61, requesting 
the President to conclude negotiations with Great Britain for review and revision of rules 
and regulations which now govern taking of fur seals in north Pacific Ocean and Bering 
Sea]. Washington, 1904. 1 p. (58th Cong. , 2dsess., House Rept. 2076.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Fur seals of Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means . . . March 9 and 
10, 1904 [on H. J. R. 124, directing the Secretary of Commerce and Labor to suspend killing 
of fur seals on Pribilof Islands, of Alaska, by the North American Commercial Company]. 
Washington, 1904. in, 76 p. (58th Cong., 2d sess., House.) 

1905 U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 

Regulations and instructions regarding the seal islands of Alaska. Letter from the Secretary 
of Commerce and Labor, transmitting, in response to a Senate resolution of January 22, 
1905, copies of all regulations and instructions regarding the seal islands of Alaska. Wash- 
ington, 1905. 12 p. (58th Cong., 3d sess., Senate Doc. 114.) 
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

Alaskan fur-seal herd . . . Letter from Henry W. Elliott, of Lakewood, Ohio, relative to the 
rules and regulations governing the agents of the Government in charge of the seal islands 
of Alaska and the condition of the fur-seal herd thereon. Washington, 1905. 78 p. (58th 
Cong., 3d sess., Senate Doc. 149.) 
Townsend, Charles Haskins. 

. . . Notes on certain Pinnipeds, with data respecting their present commercial importance. 
By C. H. Townsend . . . New York, 1905. p. 21-32, illus. (Reprinted from the ninth 
annual report of the New York Zoological Society.) 
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 

. . . Alaskan seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, transmitting 
. . . certain reports . . . [Washington, 1905]. (Preliminary and annual reports for 1903-4 
and 1904-5, by W. I. Lembkey, agent. Dated June 7, Aug. 12, Sept. 7, 1904, and June 17, 
Oct. 26, 1905, respectively.) 115 p. (59th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 98.) 

1906 U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 

. . . Report on the Alaskan fur-seal fisheries, by Edwin W. Sims, Solicitor of the Department 
of Commerce and Labor, August 31, 1906. Washington, 1906. (Appendices: A. Statistics 
of the Pribilof fur-seal herd from the discovery of the Pribilof Islands, 1786 to 1906, inclu- 
sive. B. Probable increase of the Pribilof fur-seal herd in case there be a total cessation 
of pelagic sealing and a national land killing; computation by Walter I. Lembkey.) 59 p. 
(59th Cong., 2d sess., House Doc. 251.) 



1 62 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1906 U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Compilation of the acts of Congress and treaties relating to Alaska from March 30, 1867, to 
March 3, 1905, with indices and references to decisions of the Supreme Court and opinions 
of the Attorney General. Prepared under the direction of Paul Charlton by . . . Fred F. 
Barker. Washington, 1906. 496 p. (59th Cong., istsess., Senate Doc. 142.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on the Territories. 

Fisheries in Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on the Territories of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, February 16, 1906. Washington, 1906. (Statements of F. W. Cushman, B. W. 
Evermann, G. M. Bowers, E. W. Sims, and H. M. Kutchin, discussing bill H. R. 13543.) 
19 p. 

1907 U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Navigation Bureau. 

Seal hunting and Alaska fisheries [Laws]. (In Navigation Bureau report for 1907. pt. 2. 
p. 255-268.) 

1908 U. S. Congress. Senate. 

Fur-seal herd, 1868-1908. (60th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 407 [recalled, as it was confi- 
dential].) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

To permit action to be commenced by American citizens for vessels seized in Bering Sea. 
<Report to accompany S. 390>. [Washington, 1908]. 6 p. (60th Cong., 1st sess., 
Senate Rept. 140.) 
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 

Reports relating to Alaskan seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, 
transmitting, pursuant to Senate resolution of March 2, 1908, certain reports . . . Wash- 
ington, 1908. (Preliminary and annual reports of W. I. Lembkey, agent in charge, 1906-7.) 
120 p. (60th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 376.) 

1909 Evermann, Barton Warren. 

Fur seals domesticated. (In Science, New York, 1909. n. s., vol. xxxi. p. 34.) 

1910 Evermann, Barton Warren. 

The Alaska fisheries service. By Barton W. Evermann. [Washington], 1910. cover-title, 
p. 219-224. (Reprinted from the Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 1910.) 
Townsend, Charles Haskins. 

Fur seals and the seal fisheries, by Charles H. Townsend . . . Address before the Fourth Inter- 
national Fishery Congress, held at Washington . . . September 22 to 2&, 1908. Bulletin 
of the Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxvin . . . [Washington, 1910.] p. 315-322. ([U. S.] 
Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 661.) 
U. S. Laws, statutes, etc. 

. . . Laws and regulations relative to fur-seal fishing . . . Washington, 1910. 7 p. (Bureau 
of Fisheries Doc. 732.) 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 

Report. To permit action to be commenced by American citizens for vessels seized in 
Bering Sea [from the Committee on Foreign Relations favoring S. 3916, to confer juris- 
diction upon Circuit Court of the United States for 9th Circuit to determine in equity 
rights of American citizens under award of Bering Sea arbitration of Paris]. Washington, 
1910. 6 p. (61st Cong., 2d sess., Senate Rept. 45.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Judiciary. 

Report. Claims for alleged unlawful seizures in Bering Sea [from Committee on Judiciary 
amending by substitute S. 3916, to confer jurisdiction upon the Court of Claims to hear 
and determine claims of American citizens for damages or loss resulting from alleged 
unlawful seizures in Bering Sea.] Washington, 1910. 2 p. (61st Cong., 2d sess., House 
Rept. 1270.) 
U. S. Congress. 

An act to protect the seal fisheries of Alaska, and for other purposes. [Washington, 1910.] 
3 p. (61st Cong., 2d sess., S. 7242.) [Public No. 146.] 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 63 

1910 U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Conservation of National Resources. 

Fur-seal fisheries. Hearings before the Committee on Conservation of National Resources on 
bill (S. 7242) entitled "An act to protect the seal fisheries of Alaska, and for other purposes " 
. . . Washington, 1010. 32 p., 2 fold., maps., diag. (61st Cong., 2d sess., Senate -Doc. 

605.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Seal fisheries of Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means of the House 
of Representatives, 61st Congress, 2d session, on S. 7242, April 2, 1910. (Statements of 
W. I. Lembkey and Charles Nagel) Washington, 1910. 111,267-278 p. 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Conservation of National Resources. 

Seal fisheries of Alaska . . . Report <To accompany S. 7242^ . . . [Washington, 1910.] 6 p. 
(61st Cong., 2d sess., Senate Rept. 441.) [For law, see Statutes at Large, vol. 36, pt. 1, 
p. 326.] 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 

Seal fisheries in Alaska . . . Report <To accompany S. 7242> . . . Washington, 1910. 3 p. 
(61st Cong., 2d sess., House Rept. 967.) [For law, see Statutes at Large, v. 36, pt. 1, p. 
3 2 6.] 
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of Fisheries. 

The fur-seal fisheries of Alaska in 1909. [By Walter I. Lembkey.] Washington, 1910. 53 p. 
(Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 735.) 
U. S. President. 

Lease of North American Commercial Company. Message from the President of the United 
States, recommending the repeal of the provisions, authorized in section 1963 of the Revised 
Statutes, for the renewal of the lease of the North American Commercial Company in the 
matter of the taking of fur seals on island [islands] of St. Paul and St. George. Washington, 
1910. 2 p. (61st Cong., 2d sess., Senate Doc. 430.) 
Same (In Congressional Record, 1910. v. 45, p. 3190, 3222). 
Same (In House Journal. 61st Cong., 2d sess., p. 432). 
Same (In Senate Journal. 61st Cong., 2d sess., p. 219). 

1911 Great Britain. Treaties. 

Despatch from His Majesty 's ambassador at Washington containing the text of the treaty for 
the preservation and protection of the fur seals which frequent the waters of the North 
Pacific Ocean. Signed at Washington, July 7, 1911. Presented to both houses of Parlia- 
ment by command of His Majesty, December, 1911. London, Pub. by H. M. Stationery off., 
[1911], 5 p. (Foreign office. Miscellaneous, No. 12 (1911). Parliament. Papers by com- 
mand. Cd. 6008.) 
Heath, Harold. 

Special investigation of the Alaska fur-seal rookeries, 1910. [By Harold Heath] . . . Wash- 
ington, 1911. 22 p. ([U. S.] Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 748.) 
Smith, Hugh McCormick. 

Making the fur seal abundant. (In The National Geographic magazine. Washington, 1911. 
vol. xxn, no. 12., p. 1139.) 
Townsend, Charles Haskins. 

The Pribilof fur seal herd and the prospects for its increase. [By C. H. Townsend.] New 
York, 1911. 3 p. (Read at the forty-first annual meeting of the American Fisheries 
Society, 1911.) "Reprinted from Science, n. s., vol. xxxiv, p. 568-570." 
Evermann, Barton Warren. 

An experiment in fur-seal conservation. By Barton W. Evermann [Washington, 1911], 
cover-title, p. \22-j]-2^4. [Reprinted from Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 
1910.] 
U. S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Conservation of National Resources. 

Alaskan seal fisheries. Hearings [Feb. 4, 191 1] before the Committee on Conservation of 
National Resources, United States Senate, on the bill S. 9959, to amend an act entitled 
"An act to protect the seal fisheries of Alaska, and for other purposes, " approved April 21, 
1910, No. 1. Washington, 1911. 86 p. 



1 64 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1911 U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of Fisheries. 

The fur-seal fisheries of Alaska in 1010. [By Walter I. Lembkey.] Washington, 1911. 4op. 
(Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 749.) 
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 

Seal islands of Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, transmitting, in 
response to House resolution No. 73, information relating to the seal islands of Alaska . . . 
Washington, 191 1. 1232 p. [Appendix A to hearing before Committee on Expenditures 
in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives.] (62d Cong., 1st 
sess., House Doc. 93.) " Copies of all letters, reports, and documents received from agents 
of the department in charge of the seal islands of Alaska, together with copies of all instruc- 
tions given to such agents . . . since January 1, 1904, to date." 
U. S. President. 

Fur seals. Message from the President of the United States, transmitting a treaty between 
the United States and Great Britain looking to the preservation and protection of the fur 
seals, signed at Washington on February 7, 1911. 4 p. (61st Cong., 3d sess., Executive 1.) 
U. S. Treaties. 

Convention between the United States and other powers providing for the preservation and 
protection of fur seals. Signed at Washington July 7, 191 1. Washington, 191 1. [Ratifi- 
cation advised by the Senate July 24, 191 1. Ratified by the President November 24, 
1911. Ratified by Great Britain August 25, 1911. Ratified by Japan November 6, 1911. 

Ratified by Russia J I, 1911. Ratifications exchanged at Washington December 

[Nov. 4 ) 

12,1911. Proclaimed December 14, 191 1.] 9 p. (Treaty series No. 564.) 
U. S. Treaties. 

Fur seal protection. Message from the President of the United States transmitting a con- 
vention looking to the protection and preservation of fur seals and sea otters in a certain 
defined zone of the North Pacific Ocean, signed by the plenipotentiaries of the United 
States, Great Britain, Japan, and Russia at Washington on July 7, 1911. Washington, 

1911. 9 p. (62d Cong., 1st sess. Confidential. Ex. G.) also n p. (62d Cong., 1st sess., 
Senate Doc. 75.) 

U. S. Treaties. 

Treaty between the United States and Great Britain providing for the preservation and pro- 
tection of fur seals. Signed at Washington February 7, 1911 . . . Washington, 1911. 
[Ratification advised by the Senate February 15, 1911. Ratified by the President March 
6, 1911. Ratified by Great Britain April 20, 1911. Ratifications exchanged at Wash- 
ington July 7, 1911. Proclaimed December 14, 1911.] 6 p. (Treaty series No. 563.) 
[Superseded by the Treaty of July 7, 1911.] 

1912 Clark, George Archibald. 

Report of the Seal Commission. (In Science. New York. 1912. n. s. vol. xxxv. p. 540- 

541 ■) 

Clark, George Archibald. 

The fur seal census. (In Science. New York. 1912. n. s. vol. xxxvi, p. 894-897.) 
Jordan, David Starr. 

Fur seals and their enemies. By D. S. Jordan and Geo. A. Clark. (In Review of Reviews. 
New York. 1912. vol. 45. p. 315-317.) 
Marsh, Millard Caleb. 

The fur seal mortality of the Pribilof rookeries in the absence of pelagic sealing. (In Science. 
New York. 1912. n. s. vol. xxxvi. p. 897-898.) 
McLean, Marshall. 

Pribilof fur seal herd. (In Science. New York. 1912. n. s. vol. xxxvi, p. 183-184.) 
Townsend, Charles Haskins. 

Pribilof fur seal herd. By C. H. Townsend and George A. Clark. (In Science. New York. 

1912. n. s. vol. xxxv. p. 334-338.) 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1 9 1 4. 1 65 

1912 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

Protection of fur seals and sea otter. Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the 
House of Representatives, January 3 and 4, 1912 , on H. R. 1657 1 , a bill to give effect to the 
convention between the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, Japan-, and 
Russia, for the preservation and protection of the fur seals and sea otter which frequent the 
waters of the north Pacific Ocean, concluded at Washington, July 7, 1911 [Text of Treaty] 
. . . Washington, 1912. [Statements of Chandler P. Anderson, Charles Earl, W. I. 
Lembkey, Barton W. Evermann, Henry Elliott, etc.] 150 p. 

U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce and Labor. 

Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, 

House of Representatives, on House Resolution No. 73, to investigate the fur-seal industry 

of Alaska. May 31, 1911-Quly 31, 1912], no. 1 [-14], Washington, 1911-1912. 1013, [28] p 

U. S. Congress. House. 

An act to give effect to the convention between the Governments of the United States, Great 
Britain, Japan, and Russia for the preservation and protection of the fur seals and sea otter 
which frequent the waters of the north Pacific Ocean, concluded at Washington, July 7, 
1911. (Approved August 24, 1912.) [Washington, 1912.] 4 p. (62d Cong., 2d sess., 
H. R. 16571 [Public 320]). (In Stat. L., vol. 37, pt. 1, p. 499.) 

U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. 

Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1911 [by Barton Warren Evermann], Washington, 1912. 
99 p. (Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 766.) (Contents include General administrative report, 
by B. W. Evermann and The Fur Seal Service by W. I. Lembkey.) 

U. S. President. 

Fur seal convention. Message from the President of the United States, urging the importance 
of enacting at the earliest possible moment, and at this session of Congress, legislation 
necessary to enable this Government to make the payments to Great Britain and Japan as 
required by a convention entered into by the United States with Great Britain, Japan, and 
Russia on July 7, 1911, and also to fulfill its obligations thereunder in so far as legislation is 
necessary for that purpose . . . [Washington, 1912.] 3 p. (62d Cong., 2d sess., Senate 
Doc. 921.) 

U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. 

Truth about the fur seals of the Pribilof Islands. [Washington, 1912.] 7 p. (Bureau of 
Fisheries. Economic circular No. 4.) "Statement of Dr. David Starr Jordan and Mr. 
George A. Clark." 

U. S. Treaties. 

Fur seal convention . . . Washington [1912] (Signed at Washington July 7, 1911, by repre- 
sentatives of the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Russia) 13 p. (62d Cong., 2d 
sess., House Doc. 916.) 

U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

Protection and regulation of the seal fisheries of Alaska . . . Report <To accompany H. R. 
2oo47> Washington, 1912. 7P- (626. Cong., 2d sess., House Rept. 321.) 

U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

The fur seal convention . . . Report. <To accompany H. R. 16571^ Washington, 1912. 
("Treaty series No. 564. Convention between the United States and other powers pro- 
viding for the preservation and protection of fur seals. Signed at Washington, July 7, 
1911 ..." p. 21-29.) 2 9 P- (62d Cong., 2d sess., House Rept. 295.) 

1913 [Anonymous] Seals of the Pribilof Islands. (In Popular Science Monthly. New York. 1913. 

vol. 82.) 
Clark, George Archibald. 

Conservation of the fur seal. (In North American Review. New York. 1913. vol. 197. 
p. 640-644.) 
Clark, George Archibald. 

Administration of the fur seal service. (In Science. New York. 1913. n. s. vol. xxxvh, 
P- 32S-3 2 7-) 



1 66 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

1913 Clark, George Archibald. 

The fur-seal census for 1913. (In Science. New York. 1913. n. s. vol. xxxvm, p. 
918-919.) 
Elliott, Henry Wood. 

A statement submitted in re the fur-seal herd of Alaska to the House Committee on Expendi- 
tures in the Department of Commerce, by Henry W. Elliott, December 15, 1913, to sup- 
plement and complete the report and exhibits of the special agents of the House Committee 
on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce upon the condition of the fur-seal herd 
of Alaska and the conduct of the public business on the Pribilof Islands, as ordered by the 
committee June 20, 1913. Washington, 1913. 261 p. (Included, also, in "Hearings 
before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce . . . October 13, 
1913, and January 17, I9i4,"p. 163—427.) 
Jordan, David Starr. 

Fur-seal legislation. By David Starr Jordan and George Archibald Clark. (In Science. 
New York. 1913. n. s. vol. xxxvn, p. 553.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce. 

The report of the special agents of the House Committee on Expenditures in the Department 
of Commerce upon the condition of the fur-seal herd of Alaska and the conduct of the public 
business on the Pribilof Islands, as ordered by the committee, June 20, 1913, and made 
by the said agents, August 31, 1913, to the chairman, Hon. J. H. Rothermel; by Henry W. 
Elliott and Andrew F. Gallagher . . . Washington, 1913. 139 p. illus. charts (part fold.). 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce and Labor. 

The fur-seal industry of Alaska . . . Report [Washington, 1913] 19 p. (62d Cong., 3d sess. 
House Rept. 1425.) At head of title: "House calendar no. 377." Submitted by Mr. 
Rothermel. Ordered printed January 21, 1913. "Views of the minority" (p. 7-10) sub- 
mitted by Mr. McGuire. "Statement of the minority as to matters presented to the 
committee" (p. n-19) signed: Bird McGuire, Martin B. Madden, Chas. E. Patton. 
U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. 

Fishery and fur industries of Alaska in 1912. By Barton Warren Evermann. Washington, 
1913. 123 p. (Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 780.) (Contents include: General adminis- 
trative report, B. W. Evermann, and Fur-seal service, by Walter I. Lembkey.) 
U. S. President. 

Message of the President of the United States on fur seals. Communicated to the two houses 
of Congress, Wednesday, January 8, 1913 . . . Washington, 1913. 7 p. (62d Cong., 3d 
sess., Senate Doc. 997.) 

1914 Clark, George Archibald. 

The new fur-seal investigation. (In Science. New York. 1914. n. s. vol. xxxix. p. 
871-872.) 
Clark, George Archibald. 

Russian versus American sealing. (In Science. New York. 1914. n. s. vol. xl. p. 

73 6 -739-) 
Osburn, Raymond C. 

The fur-seal inquiry, the Congressional committee and the Scientist. (In Science. New 
York. 1914. n. s. vol. XL. p. 557-558- ) 
[Editor] 

The fur-seal commission. (In Science. New York. 1914. n. s. vol. xxxix. p. 529.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce. 

Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce, House of 
Representatives. Investigation of the fur-seal industry of Alaska. October 13, 1913. . . . 
[to April 2, 1914] . . . Washington, 1914. 849 p. (63d Cong., 2d sess., House.) 
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce. 

Fur-seal industry of Alaska . . . Report [recommending action by Attorney General to collect 
bond from North American Commercial Company and to institute civil proceedings against 
Isaac Liebes and others] Washington, 1914. 8 p. (63d Cong., 2d sess., House Report 
500.) 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 167 

1014 U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Expenditures in Department of Commerce. 

Fur-seal industry of Alaska . . . Minority report. 22 p. (63d Cong., 2d sess., House Rept. 
500, pt. 2.) 
U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. 

. . . Alaska fisheries and fur industries. [By] Barton Warren Evermann. Appendix 11 to 
the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1913 . . . Washington, 1914. 78 p. 
(Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 797.) 
U. S. Treasury Department. Revenue Cutter Service. 

[Rules governing vessels designated to protect seal herds and sea otters] 7 p. Approved 
October 29, 1913. 
U. S. Congress. House. 

Appendix. In re fur-seal investigation. Facts of record which show the decline of the 
fur-seal herd of Alaska and the cause of that destruction of this fine public property. 
[Washington, 1914] p. 53-260. (63 Cong., 2d sess., House Rept.) 



DESCRIPTION OF MAPS. 



Rookeries, Showing Number and Location of HarEms at Height op Season, 1914. 



ST. PAUL ISLAND. 



1. Kitovi. 

2. Lukanin. 

3. Gorbatch. 

4. Ardiguen. 

5. Reef. 

6. Sivutch. 

7. Lagoon. 

8. Tolstoi. 



17. North. 

18. Staraya Artel. 

19. Zapadni. 



9. Zapadni. 

10. Little Zapadni. 

11. Zapadni Reef. 

12. Polovina. 

13. Polovina Cliffs. 

14. Little Polovina. 

15. Morjovi. 

16. Vostochni. 



ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 



20. Little East. 

21. East Reef. 

22. East Cliffs. 



General Maps. 

23. St. Paul Island, with Otter Island and Sea Lion Rock. 

24. St. George Island. 

KITOVI ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Nearly a mile northeast of the village and beyond the high cliff known as the Black Bluff, lies 
Kitovi Rookery. The harems occupy a stretch of broken ledge with numerous irregular features. 

On June 25 this rookery contained 46 harem bulls and 24 cows in 17 harems. On June 30 this was 
increased to 47 bulls and 162 cows in 34 harems. On July 17, 58 harems and 5 idle bulls were counted. 
The count of pups showed 2,119 born on Kitovi. 

The northern end of this rookery, known as the Amphitheater, is frequented by a small and variable 
number of bachelors. A small number haul also in the vicinity of Rock No. 10. Early in the season 
the number found in both these places was small, from 50 to 150, but gradually increased and on July 
28, 446 were counted. 

LUKANIN ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

North of Kitovi Rookery and separated from it only by a short interval of sea-washed cliff, lies 
Lukanin. A few harems are situated on a limited space at the base of a steep bluff and beyond this a 
steeply sloping area studded with large bowlders is occupied. 

On June 25, when Kitovi still had very few cows, a single harem on Lukanin had as many as 18. 
There were 34 bulls, 19 harems, and 196 cows on June 30 and nearly half the cows were included in a 
singleharem. On July 17, at the heightof theseason, there were 39 harems and one idle bull. Bachelors 
hauled at the northern end of Lukanin with great irregularity. In June none were seen except at the 
water front, but on July 7 about a dozen were found hauled well up the slope and sleeping in the grass, 
and on July 28 as many as 186 were counted about the rookery. The official count of pups showed 1,834 
for Lukanin. 
168 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 169 

GORBATCH ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery occupies nearly half a mile of shore on the northwestern side of Reef Peninsula. Its 
extreme eastern harems are at the foot of abrupt cliffs, its central ones are situated on broadly shelving 
ledges, while those farther west occupy a bowlder beach. Being scarcely half a mile from the village, it 
is easily accessible and high banks in several places afford excellent observation stations. 

On the occasion of the first critical examination of this rookery on June 23 it held about 90 old bulls, 
26 of which had small harems aggregating about 60 cows. Many harems contained but one cow, and the 
largest numbered only 10. About one-fourth of the cows had new-born pups. The next day the cows 
had increased to about 100 and at least 20 pups were seen. 

On June 25 100 old bulls were counted, 43 of which had harems containing in all 143 cows. The 
pups had then increased to 41 . On June 26 the cows had increased to 19S and 79 pups were counted. 

Gorbatch was next visited on June 30, when 101 harem bulls were counted, 72 of which had harems 
aggregating about 550 cows and at least X70 pups. On July 3 no detailed count was made, btit the number 
of cows had increased and the number of pups nearly equaled the cows. At this time many of the cows 
had begun to go to sea to feed. No more counts were made until July 17, when the official harem count 
showed 112 bulls with harems. The females in these harems were later found to have given birth to 
6,152 pups. 

A small hauling ground on a grassy hillside at the rear of the middle of the rookery was occupied by 
a moderate number of bachelors which slowly increased throughout the season. On June 30, this number 
was slightly less than 100; on June 24, it was not less than 150; on June 26, it was somewhat more than 
200; on July 3, by careful count, it was approximately 400; and on July 28, it was 500. 

ARDIGUEN ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Beyond Gorbatch Rookery and separated from it by a short stretch of precipitous cliffs is the small 
rookery known as Ardiguen. It occupies a narrow beach at the foot of a high cliff, from the crest of which 
one may look almost directly down on the harems. This rookery, when first examined on June 24, was 
occupied by only 9 bulls, 5 of which had small harems. The number of harems later increased to 14. 
From 1909 to 1913 this rookery had uniformly held n harems. The count of pups showed that 656 pups 
were born on Ardiguen. 

REEF ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Extending for somewhat over half a mile along the southeastern side of Reef Peninsula is the popu- 
lous rookery bearing this name. The ground occupied comprises mainly ledges of rock or bowlder- 
covered beaches. The regular nature of the ground and the lack of eminences make observation difficult, 
as the harems extend some distance back from the shore and access to the front of the rookery mass from 
the rear is not possible. 

On June 24 there were about 165 harem bulls on this rookery. At the time of the official count of 
harems there were 193 bulls. In these harems were born 13,559 pups. 

Near the center of the breeding ground on Reef Rookery is an extensive hauling ground, from which 
numerous drives were made in 1914. A drive from this place on July 1 contained, by actual count, 780 
seals, and these were estimated to constitute about one-fifth of the total number then on the ground. 

On August 8, notwithstanding that practically all food killings in recent years have been taken from 
this place, 1,600 seals were driven from this hauling ground, forming the largest drive that has been made 
on the islands for a number of years. On July 3 between 2,000 and 2,500 seals were estimated to be 
hauled out here. On July 28, when a one-day count of all bachelors on St. Paul Island was made, only 
1 , 500 were found on Reef. 

SIVUTCH ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Sea Lion Rock or Sivutch, a small islet lying a few hundred yards off Reef Point, is the site of a 
populous rookery. When first visited, on June 29, 63 breeding bulls were stationed there; 35 of these 
had harems, with a total of 364 cows. At the height of the season, there were 91 harem bulls, and 10 
idle bulls. The count later showed that 4,052 pups were born there. 

Bachelor seals haul out on Sivutch in some numbers. On July 28 at least 500 were present there. 
This hauling ground is resorted to later in the autumn than any other, and successful drives for food are 
sometimes made as late as December. A few sea lions are usually found on this island, and many 
birds breed on its summit. 



170 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

LAGOON ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery occupies the front of a wall-like reef composed of rounded bowlders which have been 
forced by the ice from the shallow bay called Village Cove, partially shutting off a lagoon from the sea. 
Lagoon was once an extensive rookery, but is now almost abandoned. 

On June 23, when Lagoon rookery was first inspected, it contained two young and five old bulls, 
one of which had two cows. Seven bulls were present on July 2 and on July 18 there were eight harem 
bulls and two young bulls. The count of pups on July 29 showed that 375 pups were born there. 

There is at present no hauling ground near Lagoon Rookery. 

TOLSTOI ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery occupies a continuous stretch nearly a mile long on the eastern shore of English Bay. 
The ground occupied is mainly a rocky beach , but in some places the harems extend part way up the 
steep slope which flanks the grassy bluffs of Tolstoi Head. At the northern end of the rookery a 
number of harems occupy a considerable portion of a broad sand flat upon which scattered rocks were 
placed some years ago. The southern part of the rookery is sometimes distinguished from the northern 
under the name Tolstoi Cliffs. 

At the time of the earliest visit, on June 23, 106 harem bulls were found located on Tolstoi. These 
were guarding a total of about 100 cows, of which 37 had pups. On June 25, 122 harem bulls were 
counted and the number of cows had greatly increased. 

On July 18, 161 harems and 15 idle bulls were counted. In these harems were born 9,934 pups. 

The principal hauling ground is at the northern end of the rookery. On June 23 it was estimated 
that 800 bachelors were hauled. On July 28, 572 were counted, and after August 1, although no exact 
counts were made, it was evident that nearly or quite 1,000 were usually present. 

ZAPADNI ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery lies northeast of the extremity of Zapadni Point, the western boundary of English Bay. 
The harems occupy a stretch of rocky ledges and bowlder beaches nearly half a mile in length. When 
first visited, on June 26, this rookery held 103 bulls, 34 of which had harems with an aggregate of about 
100 cows. By July 18, when the official count of harems was made, there were 1 14 harem bulls and 24 
idle bulls. The count of pups on this rookery showed a total of 7,625. On the several hauling grounds 
of this rookery about 1,300 bachelors were counted on July 28. 

LITTLE ZAPADNI, ST PAUL ISLAND. 

On the northwest shore of English Bay and separated from Zapadni Rookery by a small sandy beach 
lies Little Zapadni. It occupies about a half mile of rocky ledge backed by a gently rising slope. The 
harems extend up this slope in tiers so that in places five or six are in line between the water and the 
upper limits. 

On June 26, when this rookery was first visited, 68 harem bulls, 36 of which already had harems, 
were located. On July 18, 90 harem bulls and 10 idle bulls were counted. The count of pups later 
showed that 4,919 had been born. On the hauling ground at the northern end of the rookery 281 
bachelors were counted on July 28. 

ZAPADNI REEF, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

The remnant of a rookery at one time nearly continuous with Little Zapadni is found on the northern 
shore of English Bay. The present season it contained 3 harem bulls and 1 idle bull. The count of 
pups showed that 206 were born. There are no hauling grounds in the vicinity. 

POLOVINA ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery occupies a rocky point about half way between the village and the northeastern 
extremity of the island. On June 27, when first visited, 36 harem bulls had located, and 7 of these 
had harems, with a total of about 60 cows. At the height of the season, there were 58 harem bulls and 
3 idle bulls. The count later showed that 3,55s pups were born on the rookery. 

At the southern end of the rookery is a hauling ground, which on July 28 contained about 550 
bachelors. 



FUR SEALS AND OTHER LIFE, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, 1914. 1 71 

POLOVINA CLIFFS ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery consists of several interrupted groups of harems occupying a narrow strip of rough 
boulder beach at the foot of a line of low cliffs, behind which extends a level mossy plain. On June 27 
there were 18 harem bulls in this rookery, n of which had a total of 38 cows. 

At the height of the season 22 harems and 6 idle bulls were stationed here. The count taken July 29 
showed that 1,449 P u ps were born in these harems. 

A very few bachelors haul out in the vicinity of this rookery; on July 28 the number found was 47. 

LITTLE POLOVINA ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Little Polovina lies a short distance north of Polovina Cliffs and is similar in character to Polovina 
Cliffs. On June 27 it held n harem bulls, 6 of which had 28 cows among them. On July 19 the 
number of harems was 18. The count later showed that 927 pups were born here. On the small hauling 
ground about 50 bachelors were usually found. 

MORJOVI ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

Morjovi is on the eastern side of Northeast Point, and separated from the larger rookery of Vostochni 
by the breeding herd of sea lions. It consists of two rather compact detached harem masses, with a 
few scattered outlying ones, and is the remnant of a rookery which formerly extended far down the 
shore. On June 27 it had 35 breeding bulls, and on July 19 there were 43 harems and 4 idle bulls. On 
this rookery 2,312 pups were born. 

Adjoining Morjovi Rookery are two small hauling grounds, on which about 400 bachelors were 
usually found. 

VOSTOCHNI ROOKERY, ST. PAUL ISLAND. 

This rookery, which is nearly continuous over a stretch of rocky shore line more than a mile in 
length, is the largest rookery of fur seals in the world. When first visited, on June 27, 248 harem bulls 
were stationed there. At the height of the season, 291 harems and 20 idle bulls were found. The count 
of pups later showed that 19,709 had been born in these harems. 

From the summit of Hutchinson Hill one looks down on a closely packed mass of harems "which 
at the height of the season in 1914 held 106 harem bulls. The count of pups on August 2 showed a total 
of 9,504 in this mass, which, with their mothers and the harem masters, makes a total of over 19,000 
breeding seals in one compact mass. Surrounding this particular breeding area on three sides is a 
hauling ground usually containing several thousand bachelors. On the various hauling grounds of 
Vostochni, 3,652 bachelors were counted on July 28. In former years the hauling grounds of Northeast 
Point were much more populous than at present and furnished nearly one-third of the total quota of 
skins for St. Paul Island. 

On the point near the eastern extremity of this rookery is a breeding rookery of sea lions, the only 
one on St. Paul Island. 

NORTH ROOKERY, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

North Rookery lies about a mile west of the village and consists of a narrow fringe of harems occu- 
pying a strip of rough beach at the foot of low abrupt cliffs. There were 85 harems on July 13, and 94 
harems and 4 idle bulls at the time of the official count on July 20. In these harems were born 5,301 
pups. About 100 bachelors usually resorted to the small hauling ground. 

STARAYA ARTEL, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

This rookery comprises a compact mass of harems on a hill, one side of which breaks suddenly to the 
water and another sweeps gradually to the same level. 

There were 46 harems here on July 13 and 63 harem bulls and 4 idle bulls on July 20. The count 
later showed that 4,278 pups were born here. On the hauling ground there were usually from 500 to 600 
bachelors. 



172 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

ZAPADNI ROOKERY, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

Zapadni Rookery occupies a small patch of rough bowlder beach at the foot of an abrupt cliff, while 
a few harems extend around the end of the cliff and occupy a small area on its summit. 

On July 13 there were 15 harems on Zapadni and on July 19 this number was found to be reduced 
to 14. The count of pups showed that 1,023 were born here. About 50 bachelors haul on the ground 
immediately adjacent to the breeding area. 

On the shore about a mile east of Zapadni there was in 1914 a small hauling ground. On August 4 
a number of bachelors and two old bulls were found there . Among the seals which took to the water no 
females were distinguished but a single young pup was found, evidence of at least one harem. According 
to the natives there were three harems at this place in 1913. In former years many seals hauled out 
here, and it was a regular killing place. Another hauling ground about half a mile west of the rookery 
was occupied in 1914. On August 1 a total of 276 bachelors was counted on the several hauling grounds 
near Zapadni Rookery. 

LITTLE EAST ROOKERY, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

This rookery has dwindled in late years, and in 1914 had only one harem, in which 26 pups were 
born. In 1913 there were two harems with 25 pups, and in 1912 one harem with 26 pups. The rookery 
is on a beach at the end of the cliffs which extend for about a mile eastward from the village. 

EAST REEF ROOKERY, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

A short distance eastward from Little East Rookery is East Reef, occupying a slightly elevated 
stretch of ledge covered with large bowlders. 

On July 14 there were 14 harems on this rookery, and the same number were counted on July 20. 
About 175 bachelors were on the hauling ground on July 30. On this rookery 581 pups were born. 

EAST CLIFFS ROOKERY, ST. GEORGE ISLAND. 

This is the easternmost of the St. George rookeries, and occupies a gradually narrowing rocky beach 
and rough ascending slope. Back of it is a steep, grassy ascent, which at the eastern end of the rookery 
becomes an abrupt cliff. The harem bulls on July 14 numbered 54. The count on July 20 showed 57 
harems and 2 idle bulls. The pups born on this rookery numbered 2,658. 

On the hauling ground at the western end of this rookery about 800 bachelors were counted on July 28. 

J- 



Buxi 



\ 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 1. 




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Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 3. 



INDEX MAP 




Gorbatch Rookei 



GORBATCH ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 



NUMBERED ROCKS 

NUMBER 

JULY 




Bull. U.S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 4. 



ARDIGUEN ROOKERY 

ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 




I 



U. S. B. F., 1914 



Map 5. 




Boil.. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 5. 



REEF ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

^NUMBERED ROCKS OHAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 193 
JULY 17. 1914 




'Reef Rookery 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 6. 



SIVUTCH ROOKERY 

ST. PAUL ISLANB 

1914 



NUMBER OF HAREMS 91 
JULY 20i 1914 

Yards 




Slvutch Rookeryii 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 7. 




Bull. U. S. 



Map 8. 




Tolstoi P+ 



Bull- U. S. B. F., 1914 



Map ! 



N 

A 



INDEX MAP 



TOLSTOI ROOKERY 

ST. PAUL ISLAND 
1914 

Oharems 



A NUMBERED ROCKS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 161 
JULY 1S 1914 

Yards 



Tolstoi Pt (-"_ 




Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 9. 




Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 9. 



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£ 


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-iiin 






Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 10. 



LITTLE ZAPADNI ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 



A 



,A. NUMBERED ROCKS OhAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 90 

JULY 18. 1914 

Yards 




"\9° o ° 




■A' 





INDEX MAP 


J ST. 


PAUL I. j 


^ x Little Zapadni ^^ 




— ^Rookery / 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 11. 




D INDEX MAP 




A 



ZAPADNI KEEF ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

i2L\NUMBERED ROCKS OHAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 3 
JULY 18. 1914 



Yards 



25 



100 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 12. 




POLOVINA ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 



^NUMBERED ROCKS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 58 
JULY 19,1914 

Yards . 



O HAREMS 



Bull. U. S. 




Map 13. 



.%!//. ,.,,• •>"' 



.11// .,!„ 

..\//, Mil- 




.OVINA CLIFFS ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

Ah NUMBERED ROCKS O HAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 22 
JULY 19,1914 

Yards 



25 50 



100 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map i%. 




index MAP 





POLOVINA CLIFFS ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

M\ NUMBERED ROCKS O HAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 22 
JULY 19,1914 

Yards 

25 60 100 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 14. 




N 

A 



N - «\'°.CS 



1AI 





INDEX MAP 




Little Polovinaf 




.Rookery 4 


I ST. 


PAUL 1. J 


""■* 





& 



<& 



LITTLE POLOVINA 

ROOKERY 

ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

MS. NUMBERED ROCKS O HAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 18 
JULY 19,1914 



.25 



Yarda 
6V~ 



100 



Map 15. 




Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 15. 




Bull 





Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914- 



Map 16. 



Vostochni Rookery J 




INDEX MAP 




VOSTOCHNI ROOKERY 
ST. PAUL ISLAND 

1914 

Anumbered ROCKS OHAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 291 
JULY 19. 1914 



Yards 



Bull. U. 



Map 17. 




Boll. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 17. 



NORTH ROOKERY 

ST. GEORGE ISLAND 

1914 



N 

A 



A 



NUMBERED ROCKS OHAREMS 

NUMBER OF HAREMS 94 
JULY 20, 1914 



Yards 



North Booken 




INDEX MAP 



|A 



25 60 



100 




B2 I 



Bmx. U. S. B. F., 



;.-.o . a _p- 



■- .- ; ■■■*M$'4ZL 



>....& ? 





N M 



O § S R * R 



o o o o,, 



+ \ 






Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 18. 



Staraya Artel Rookery 



STARAYA ARTEL ROOKERY 
ST, GEORGE ISLAND 

1914 




Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 19. 



ZAPADNI ROOKERY 

ST. GEORGE ISLAND 

1914 

1BERED ROCKS OhaREMS 




Bull. U. S. B. F 







Mi/ 




\t/f 


'(' '. 


.... 


A'/// 






^",. 




" A'V. 


i 1 '/- 


-'.■ 


Ml, 


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Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 




Buia. U. S. B. F., i 



.., /I5 



o .' 



'" 




*l4 


* x ""-. v \ll//. 




AIM 


oi'v , 






Ut 4\\i. 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map : 



EAST CLIFFS ROOKERY 
ST. GEORGE ISLAND 

J914 

O HAREMS 




Fnlrlmit 



Bull. U. S. B. F., 1914. 



Map 23. 





Nor 



WBeantake 

3£ ».? 





Casca 



35' 



Bull. U. S. B. F. ( 1914. 



Map 24. 




